Glossary

Abboccato

In still wine, "Abboccato" refers to the category above "dry" and below "medium sweet". The residual sugar content must not exceed 12 grams per litre, or 18 grams if the total acidity, expressed as tartaric acid, is no more than 10 grams per litre lower than the residual sugar content. In German, this corresponds to "halbtrocken".

In sparkling wine, however, "Abboccato" refers to 32 to 50 grams of residual sugar per litre and corresponds to "Demi-Sec" or "halbtrocken". The same term therefore denotes different sugar ranges depending on the type of wine – the relevant scale is always the decisive factor. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Dosage · Residual Sugar

Acidity

Alongside tannins, acidity is the backbone of a wine. The three most important acids are tartaric acid, malic acid and citric acid; lactic acid only forms later in the cellar. Tartaric acid is the most stable and is found in significant quantities almost exclusively in grapes; it has a lively and direct flavour. Malic acid has a sharper, more angular character and is respired off during grape ripening – the riper the harvest, the higher the proportion of malic acid. Lactic acid has the mildest flavour and is produced from malic acid during malolactic fermentation.

Two key figures are often confused. Total acidity indicates the total amount of acid present; in Germany, this is calculated as tartaric acid in grams per litre; EU wine legislation requires a minimum of 3.5 grams. The pH value, on the other hand, measures the concentration of free hydrogen ions and ranges between approximately 3 and 4 in wine. The two are related but not interchangeable: potassium and calcium act as buffers in the wine, meaning that a wine with high acidity can still have a comparatively high pH value. The composition of the acids also plays a role. Total acidity is more indicative of the wine's perceived flavour, whilst the pH value is more relevant to microbiological stability and colour. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Freshness · Juiciness

Aged

"Aged" describes a wine that has spent a considerable amount of time in a cask or bottle and whose evolution is noticeable. Unlike "evolved", which refers to the wine's condition in the glass, "aged" refers to the journey it has undertaken – to time, not to a specific assessment.

In the trade, the term also refers to vintages that have already spent part of their ageing period with the producer or retailer. It says nothing about quality: an aged wine may be approaching or at its peak, or it may even have passed it. – SUPERIORE.DE

Ageing potential

Ageing potential refers to a wine's ability to mature over the years without deteriorating. Four natural protective compounds play a key role: acidity, tannins, alcohol and residual sugar. Acidity keeps the pH level low, thereby slowing down oxidation and microbial activity; tannins act as antioxidants; whilst alcohol and sugar have a preservative effect. This is why even sweet wines with low alcohol content have an exceptionally long shelf life – in these cases, the sugar takes on the protective role.

The common saying "red wine is for ageing, white wine is for drinking young" does not tell the whole story: in white wine, acidity is almost the sole protective factor, and a white wine with high acidity can outlast many red wines. The potential is established in the vineyard through low yields, old vines and the timing of the harvest, and in the cellar through maceration time and oak ageing. Whether this potential is realised depends on the storage conditions: a constant temperature, darkness and sufficient humidity. Large bottles mature more slowly because the ratio of wine volume to oxygen exposure is more favourable. – SUPERIORE.DE

Aging

Ageing or maturation describes the cellar development of a wine after fermentation and before bottling. Depending on the wine, this phase may include racking, blending, lees contact, fining, stabilisation and filtration. Aroma, texture and structure continue to change during this period. Rather than a strict division between "reductive" and "oxidative" ageing, practical winemaking ranges from processes that are largely protected from oxygen to methods in which limited oxygen contact is deliberately permitted. Duration and intensity depend on grape variety, origin, intended style and the relevant production rules.

The vessel also influences development. Stainless steel is aromatically neutral and can be protected very effectively from oxygen. With concrete and clay, oxygen exchange and the effect on the wine depend on the material, construction and any lining. Wood can additionally release aroma and tannin compounds and permits slow oxygen exchange; in barriques, the toasting of the staves also affects the aromas transferred to the wine. Large casks generally have a more restrained impact because of the lower ratio of wood surface to wine volume. Ageing on fine lees can further modify texture and palate weight. – SUPERIORE.DE

Aglianico del Taburno DOCG

Aglianico del Taburno DOCG is a Campanian appellation for red and rosé wines from the Sannio area in the province of Benevento. Recognised as a DOC in 1986, it was elevated to DOCG status by Ministerial Decree of 30 September 2011. It requires a minimum of 85 per cent Aglianico from the hillsides surrounding the Taburno massif, predominantly at altitudes between 200 and 650 metres.

The appellation comprises three types: Rosso, Rosato and Rosso Riserva. The Rosso is aged for at least two years, the Riserva for three years, with a minimum alcohol content of 13 per cent by volume, including twelve months in wood and six months in the bottle. Compared to Aglianico del Vulture, Taburno is often somewhat more approachable and fresher, without losing the variety's typical firmness and tannic structure. Everything you need to know about Aglianico wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Aglianico del Vulture Superiore DOCG

Aglianico del Vulture Superiore is the highest classification for red wine from Basilicata; it was elevated to DOCG status in 2010 and is produced from 100 per cent Aglianico on the slopes of Monte Vulture. The extinct volcano shapes everything: the vines grow in soils of lava, tuff and volcanic ash, at altitudes between 200 and 700 metres, where cool nights preserve acidity and aromatic structure. The area comprises fifteen municipalities in the north of the province of Potenza, including Rionero, Barile and Venosa. Both types of DOCG require a minimum alcohol content of 13.5% vol: the Superiore is aged for a total of three years, comprising twelve months in wood and twelve months in the bottle; the Riserva for a total of five years, comprising twenty-four months in wood and twelve in the bottle.

A defining characteristic is the interplay of power and freshness: a deep garnet-red wine with a firm tannic structure and lively acidity, characterised by the smoky, mineral notes imparted by the volcanic soils. The range extends from the more approachable Superiore to the rigorously structured Riserva, which matures for over two decades, developing spicy, earthy tertiary aromas in the process. Here, the Aglianico grape reveals its most structured and long-lived character. Everything you need to know about Aglianico wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Alcohol Content

The alcohol content indicates the proportion of pure alcohol by volume, expressed as a percentage (% vol). It is produced during fermentation, when yeasts convert the sugar in the grape must into alcohol and carbon dioxide. How much of this ends up in the finished wine depends not only on the ripeness of the grapes, but also on whether fermentation is allowed to run its full course: if it is interrupted, sugar remains in the wine and the alcohol content remains low – as is the case with Moscato d'Asti, which remains well below the levels found in dry wines.

Minimum levels are set by EU wine legislation and the individual disciplinary regulations; these vary considerably depending on the wine category and appellation. From a sensory perspective, alcohol acts primarily as a carrier: a large proportion of the aromatic compounds are soluble in alcohol and only become perceptible as a result – this explains why the aromatic profile changes when alcohol is removed from a wine. It also contributes to body and viscosity and enhances the impression of sweetness and warmth; in high concentrations, it can have a burning sensation and mask fruit and acidity. The figure stated on the label may generally deviate from the measured value by up to 0.5% vol. – SUPERIORE.DE

Alcoholic Fermentation

→ See Fermentation

Alta Langa DOCG

The Alta Langa DOCG is the Piedmontese designation for Metodo Classico sparkling wines made from Chardonnay and Pinot Nero. Elevated to DOCG status by Ministerial Decree of 21 February 2011 (previously a DOC since 2002), it encompasses hilly areas in the provinces of Cuneo, Asti and Alessandria at altitudes above 250 metres. The blend must consist of 90 to 100 per cent Pinot Noir and/or Chardonnay; the remaining up to 10 per cent may come from other non-aromatic grape varieties from the region.

The production regulations require a minimum ageing period of 30 months on the lees, and 36 months for the Riserva; every bottle must be a vintage wine. The Spumante Bianco and Spumante Rosato styles are produced as Brut, Extra Brut or Pas Dosé. This establishes Alta Langa as a Piedmontese Metodo Classico category alongside Franciacorta in Lombardy and Trento in Trentino. Everything you need to know about sparkling wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Alto Adige DOC

Alto Adige DOC is the main appellation of the Province of Bolzano in the far north of Italy, also referred to as "South Tyrol" or "South Tyrolean" in the production regulations. It encompasses numerous single-varietal white and red wines, as well as blends without a specified variety, and accounts for the vast majority of local wine production. Over twenty grape varieties are permitted, including Chardonnay, Pinot Bianco, Gewürztraminer, Lagrein and Vernatsch.

Within the appellation, there are six sub-zones: Bozner Leiten, Eisacktaler, Meraner Hügel, St. Magdalener, Terlaner and Vinschgau. Since the 2024 harvest, more precise Unità Geografiche Aggiuntive (UGA) have also been designated. The vineyards are situated at altitudes ranging from 200 to around 1,000 metres; this wide range of altitudes in the Alps explains the stylistic diversity, from fresh, aromatic white wines to deep-coloured, full-bodied Lagreins. Everything you need to know about South Tyrolean wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Amabile

In still wine, "Amabile" refers to the category above "abboccato": the residual sugar content is above the limit permitted for medium-dry wines and no more than 45 grams per litre. In German, this corresponds to "lieblich". For sparkling wine, however, separate designations on the dosage scale apply.

On Italian labels, "Amabile" is mainly found where a noticeable, but not pronounced, residual sweetness is part of the style, as in certain Lambrusco wines. The term describes an analytical sugar range rather than a fixed sensory effect. – SUPERIORE.DE

Amaro

Amaro refers to the Italian family of herbal bitters, traditionally drunk as a digestif after a meal. By law, an Amaro must have a minimum alcohol content of 15% vol; the range extends from 21% (Averna) to over 40% (Fernet Branca). The recipes combine alcohol with infusions of herbs, roots, bark, berries, citrus peel and spices, often in secret blends. Their origins lie in the monastic laboratories of the Middle Ages, where monks used them as herbal elixirs; their commercial heyday came in the 19th century, when chemists and middle-class families transferred the recipes to small-scale production facilities.

Iconic examples include Fernet Branca from Milan (1845, 27 botanicals), Amaro Averna from Caltanissetta (1868, a recipe devised by a Benedictine monk), Amaro Montenegro from Bologna (1885, 40 herbs from four continents), Amaro Lucano from Basilicata (1894), Amaro Braulio from Valtellina (Alpine, with gentian and juniper) and Vecchio Amaro del Capo from Calabria. Stylistically, the spectrum ranges from Alpine and herbally bitter through to fruity-Mediterranean and the pungent Fernet-style varieties, complemented by speciality types such as Rabarbaro and Chinato. After a period on the fringes, Amaro has been experiencing a renaissance in international cocktail culture since the 2010s. Everything you need to know about liqueurs. – SUPERIORE.DE

Amphora

The amphora is the oldest vessel used in winemaking and was also used for transport in ancient times. As fired clay is not watertight, it was lined on the inside – in the Mediterranean region with pine resin, which gave the wine a distinctive flavour. The Georgian qvevri, still in use today, is coated with beeswax and buried completely in the ground; the earth keeps the fermentation temperature constant. In modern cellars, amphorae are usually placed on racks rather than buried in the ground. Their appeal lies in their porosity: like wood, clay allows oxygen to pass through and enables slow maturation, but imparts neither tannins nor aroma. They are frequently used for white wines fermented on the skins, which are marketed as "orange wine".

Partial ageing is now also widespread: a smaller proportion of the wine matures in the amphora, whilst the larger proportion matures in wood, before the two are blended together. In Tuscany, several producers work in this way, in some cases starting as early as the fermentation stage – the wine retains the clear fruitiness imparted by the clay vessel whilst simultaneously gaining the structure of oak ageing. – SUPERIORE.DE

Appassimento

In Italian winemaking, appassimento refers to the controlled drying or withering of ripe grapes, typically after harvest. As water is lost, sugars, acids, extract and aroma compounds become concentrated while complex chemical changes also take place within the berries. Traditionally, grapes are dried on racks, mats or in well-ventilated rooms; modern facilities can control temperature and humidity. Depending on origin, grape variety and the intended wine, the process may last from a few weeks to several months. Related methods can begin concentrating the berries through extended ripening or partial drying on the vine.

Appassimento shapes numerous Italian wine styles, including Amarone and Recioto della Valpolicella, Sforzato di Valtellina and various Passito wines. Under the regular production rules for Amarone della Valpolicella, vinification normally may not begin before 1 December; in particular climatic conditions, however, the region may authorise an earlier date. The key is therefore not a fixed drying period but the controlled concentration of healthy grapes until they reach the condition required for the particular wine. – SUPERIORE.DE

Asolo Prosecco DOCG

The Asolo Prosecco DOCG is a Venetian appellation for sparkling wines made from the Glera grape, covering the Colli Asolani and Montello regions in the province of Treviso. Elevated to DOCG status by Ministerial Decree of 17 July 2009, it was originally known as "Colli Asolani-Prosecco" or "Asolo-Prosecco"; following a subsequent amendment, "Asolo Prosecco" has become the primary name. The blend must consist of at least 85 per cent Glera, supplemented by up to 15 per cent Bianchetta Trevigiana, Perera, Verdiso or Glera Lunga.

The vineyards are situated on hillsides at altitudes between 100 and 500 metres. The styles produced are Tranquillo, Frizzante and Spumante Superiore, with sweetness levels ranging from Brut Nature to Demi-Sec; the second fermentation usually takes place using the Metodo Martinotti in autoclaves. The Disciplinare also recognises the designation "Sui Lieviti" for Spumante Superiore: here, fermentation takes place in the bottle; the wine remains on the lees without disgorgement and is marketed as Brut Nature. As a DOCG, Asolo Prosecco is subject to stricter origin and quality requirements than the broader Prosecco DOC. Everything you need to know about Prosecco wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Asti Spumante DOCG

Asti Spumante is the white sparkling wine category within the Asti DOCG designation in southern Piedmont, which has held DOCG status since 1993. It is made from the Moscato Bianco grape (at least 97 per cent), grown on hillsides in the provinces of Alessandria, Asti and Cuneo. The wine is fermented in an autoclave using the Metodo Martinotti; bottle fermentation is also permitted for Asti Spumante Metodo Classico.

The sweetness spectrum now ranges from Dolce and Demi Sec through Secco/Dry and Extra Dry to Brut, Extra Brut, Brut Nature and Pas Dosé; the inclusion of the dry categories stems from an amendment to the Disciplinare. Two sub-zones specify the origin: Santa Vittoria d'Alba and Strevi. A characteristic feature is the aroma of the Moscato grape combined with fresh acidity and moderate actual alcohol content (at least 6% vol). Everything you need to know about Moscato wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Astringency

Astringency refers to the tightening, drying sensation in the mouth – not a taste in the strict sense, but a tactile sensation. It arises when tannins from skins, seeds, stems or wooden barrels bind with the proteins in saliva, reducing its lubricating properties. The tongue feels rough, the palate as though stripped bare, often with a furry aftertaste at the bases of the teeth.

In wine, astringency is neither a fault nor a virtue, but a question of quantity and maturity. Fine-grained tannins from fully ripe grapes impart structure and ageing potential; unripe or coarsely extracted tannins come across as harsh and bitter. Over the years, tannins aggregate to form larger molecules and are partially deposited as sediment – which is why tannin-rich red wines become more accessible as they age in the bottle. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Tannin

Austere

"Austere" describes a wine in which the acidity and tannins come to the fore without being balanced by fruit or smoothness – the impression is harsh and rather unapproachable.

This is usually a temporary state rather than a permanent characteristic: young wines made from tannin-rich grape varieties such as Nebbiolo or Sagrantino often come across as austere and only open up after several years, once some of the tannins have mellowed. Allowing the wine to breathe in a glass or a decanter can also soften this impression in the short term. – SUPERIORE.DE

Autolysis

Autolysis refers to the breakdown of dead yeast cells by their own enzymes. It begins a few weeks after fermentation has finished, when the yeasts are no longer active, and continues for weeks or even months. The cell walls become permeable, their structure breaks down, and the cell contents are released into the wine: mannoproteins, glucans, amino acids and enzymes.

Mannoproteins are the most effective fraction – compounds consisting of protein and polysaccharides from the yeast cell wall. They bind bitter tannins, influence the mouthfeel and prevent the precipitation of tartar and protein-induced cloudiness. Sensory notes of brioche, nuts and yeast-based pastries emerge, along with a creamy impression – most pronounced in sparkling wines that remain on the lees for a long time after bottle fermentation. The duration, temperature and yeast strain determine the intensity of the effect. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also On the Lees · Bâtonnage

Backbone

"Backbone" refers to the supporting role played by acidity in wine, not to its quantity. What is meant is that it provides a framework for the other components: fruit, alcohol and residual sweetness are organised around it, and without this structure, a wine appears broad and lacking in definition.

Unlike the measurement of total acidity, it is not a numerical value but an assessment of the balance. A wine with high acidity cannot have a framework if the acidity stands out in isolation; a wine with moderate acidity can have one if the acidity provides balanced support. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Acidity · Structure · Balance

Bagnoli Friularo DOCG

The Bagnoli Friularo DOCG – officially "Bagnoli Friularo" or "Friularo di Bagnoli" – is a Venetian appellation from the province of Padua, which emerged from the pre-existing Bagnoli DOC by Ministerial Decree of 8 November 2011. It is based on the indigenous Raboso Piave grape variety (at least 90 per cent); the production area comprises fourteen municipalities in the Conselvano region south of Padua, with the designation "Classico" reserved for the municipality of Bagnoli di Sopra.

The appellation comprises several categories: the standard wine, Riserva, Vendemmia Tardiva and Passito, each also available as "Classico". The standard wine is aged for at least twelve months, whilst the Riserva is aged for 24 months, at least twelve of which are spent in wood. The Raboso grape is characterised by pronounced acidity and a firm tannic structure, which give the wines good ageing potential. Everything you need to know about Veneto wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Balance

Balance describes the interplay between the fundamental components of a wine – acidity, tannins, alcohol, residual sugar and fruit. A wine is considered balanced when none of these components stands out, but rather they all complement one another. The term says nothing about intensity: a light white wine can be just as balanced as a concentrated red wine, and a very powerful wine can seem unbalanced if, for example, the alcohol overpowers the acidity.

Balance is not a fixed state, but changes over time. Young wines with high levels of tannins or acidity may initially seem harsh and only come together after several years; conversely, wines with low acidity lose their balance as soon as the fruitiness begins to fade. The assessment therefore always depends on the timing of the tasting. – SUPERIORE.DE

Balsamic

"Balsamic" refers to resinous, aromatic notes reminiscent of eucalyptus, mint, pine resin or medicinal herbs. These are frequently found in full-bodied red wines from warm regions, such as Amarone or wines from southern Italy, and often become more pronounced with bottle ageing.

Balsamic notes have a cooling effect and provide a counterpoint to ripe, dark fruit – this is usually noted positively in tastings. – SUPERIORE.DE

Barbera d'Alba DOC

Barbera d'Alba DOC is a Piedmontese appellation from the province of Cuneo, recognised in 1970. It encompasses the hilly terrain of the Langhe and parts of the Roero, where Barbera (at least 85 per cent) is blended with up to 15 per cent Nebbiolo. The growing area partly overlaps with the Barolo and Barbaresco regions, meaning that Barbera d'Alba is often produced by winemakers who also make Nebbiolo cru wines. Vinification and ageing must take place in the provinces of Cuneo, Asti or Turin.

The appellation recognises the classifications Barbera d'Alba and Barbera d'Alba Superiore, the latter requiring a minimum alcohol content of 12.5% vol and twelve months' ageing, four of which must be in wood. The production regulations permit the addition of "Vigna" for single-vineyard wines, as well as the "Castellinaldo" sub-zone, which has stricter requirements. Stylistically, the range extends from a youthful, fruity base wine to a wood-influenced Superiore, often with lively acidity and soft tannins. Everything you need to know about Barbera wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Barbera d'Asti DOCG

Barbera d'Asti DOCG extends across the hills of Astigiano and Monferrato in southern Piedmont. Recognised as a DOC in 1970 and promoted to DOCG in 2008, it is based on at least 90% Barbera; up to 10% of other non-aromatic red grape varieties are permitted. The denomination includes the basic type and Barbera d'Asti Superiore, which must mature for at least 14 months, including 6 months in wood. The Tinella and Colli Astiani subzones require longer ageing of at least 24 months, including 6 months in wood and 6 months in bottle. The former Nizza subzone has been a separate Nizza DOCG since the 2014 vintage.

Barbera d'Asti is characterised by the generous fruit and lively, supporting acidity of the Barbera grape. Styles range from juicy, early-drinking wines to more structured, longer-aged Superiore versions, in which oak can accompany the wine without masking its characteristic freshness. Everything you need to know about Barbera wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Barbera del Monferrato Superiore DOCG

Barbera del Monferrato Superiore DOCG is a Piedmontese appellation that was established in 2008 as a separate category from the base classification of Barbera del Monferrato DOC (1970). It covers the hilly areas of Monferrato in the provinces of Asti and Alessandria and requires a minimum of 85 per cent Barbera, supplemented by up to 15 per cent Freisa, Grignolino and/or Dolcetto. The growing area partially overlaps with that of Barbera d'Asti DOCG; the vineyards are situated at altitudes of between 150 and 400 metres.

The production regulations stipulate a minimum ageing period of 14 months, of which at least 6 must be spent in wooden barrels, as well as a minimum alcohol content of 13% vol. Typical characteristics of Barbera from Monferrato include an intense ruby red colour with garnet-red highlights as it ages, lively acidity and a soft tannin structure that becomes more structured with ageing in wood. Compared to Barbera d'Asti DOCG, Barbera del Monferrato Superiore is often somewhat more powerful and dense, as it is produced from riper grapes and subject to stricter regulations. Everything you need to know about Barbera wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Bardolino Superiore DOCG

Bardolino Superiore is the highest-quality category of Bardolino and has held DOCG status since 2001. It comes from the hills on the eastern shore of Lake Garda in the province of Verona, where the mild lakeside climate and the glacial moraine soils ensure good ripeness whilst preserving freshness. The wine is based on the Veronese blend, consisting mainly of Corvina, along with Rondinella and a small amount of Molinara – the same family of grape varieties used to produce Valpolicella and Amarone. Recognised as a DOC as early as 1968, the Superiore DOCG requires at least one year's ageing and significantly lower yields; the "Classico" designation is reserved for the historic core area around the town of Bardolino.

It is characterised by a light, ruby-red wine with an elegant, medium body, whose appeal lies in the balance between red fruit, subtle spice and lively, juicy freshness. Unlike the heavy reds of the south, Bardolino Superiore focuses on drinkability and finesse: more structured and long-lasting than the standard Bardolino, but at its best in its fruit-driven youth. As such, it embodies the light-footed, convivial side of Venetian red wine culture. Everything you need to know about Veneto wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Barrel

The barrel is more than just a container: it regulates the supply of oxygen and releases substances into the wine. A small amount of oxygen constantly seeps in through the pores and joints, causing the tannins to polymerise and making the wine smoother without oxidising it. At the same time, the wine extracts aromas and tannins from the wood.

The extent of this process depends on the surface-to-volume ratio: a small cask has more contact with the wood per litre and has a more pronounced effect than a large one. For the same reason, the influence diminishes with each refilling – after around three to four fillings, the wood releases hardly any aroma and serves primarily to allow a slow supply of oxygen. The standard sizes range from the 225-litre barrique, through the tonneau, to the large barrels of the Italian tradition, which hold several thousand litres. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Toasting · Oak · Tonneau · Large Barrel

Barrique

In wine production, a barrique is a small wooden cask; the classic Bordeaux format holds around 225 litres, while the traditional Burgundian pièce is about 228 litres. Its small volume creates a large wood-contact surface in relation to the amount of wine. Oak is used most commonly, and the origin and species of the oak, seasoning of the wood, cooperage and level of toasting all influence the compounds released into the wine. French and American oak can therefore contribute different accents, from spice and vanilla to sweeter coconut-like notes. Slavonian oak, by contrast, is particularly associated in Italian winemaking with larger traditional casks and should not be equated with the barrique format.

During cooperage, the staves are heated over fire and toasted to different degrees depending on the intended style. New barrels release the greatest amount of oak aroma and tannin; their direct influence decreases with each subsequent use. At the same time, a barrel allows slow oxygen exchange, which accompanies chemical and sensory changes during maturation. What matters is therefore not simply the use of a barrique, but its size, the wood, toast level, proportion of new barrels and length of ageing. – SUPERIORE.DE

Bâtonnage

Bâtonnage refers to the regular stirring of the yeast sediment during ageing – originally carried out with a rod, but nowadays usually with a stirrer or by rolling the cask.

The purpose is to accelerate autolysis: the settled yeast is resuspended, contact with the wine increases, and more mannoproteins are released. The wine gains body and creaminess, the texture becomes denser, and acetaldehyde is broken down. However, there is a limit to this practice: if too many cells have already died, stirring can release hydrogen sulphide and cause "Böckser". – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Autolysis · On the Lees

Biodynamic Wine

Biodynamic wine is produced through biodynamic viticulture, which goes beyond the requirements of organic viticulture and is based on Rudolf Steiner's anthroposophical principles from 1924. The vineyard is regarded as a living organism within the context of the estate, the soil and cosmic rhythms. In addition to the EU organic regulations, biodynamic preparations are used, primarily horn manure and horn silica, supplemented by compost preparations made from herbs. Moon phases and planetary constellations can play a role in the planning of work, particularly in the vineyard.

Certification is carried out by private associations with stricter standards than the EU organic label, foremost among them Demeter, Biodyvin and respekt-BIODYN. Elisabetta Foradori in Trentino, Manincor in South Tyrol, Josko Gravner in Collio and Arianna Occhipinti in Vittoria are regarded as Italian pioneers. Everything you need to know about organic wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Blanc de Blancs

Blanc de Blancs refers to a sparkling wine produced exclusively from white grape varieties. In Champagne, this usually means Chardonnay; producers in Italy also use the term, for example for sparkling wines made from Chardonnay in Franciacorta, Trentino or Oltrepò Pavese.

The term initially refers only to the colour of the grape varieties used, not to a prescribed style. Blanc de Blancs can be very light and crisp, but depending on its origin, ripeness and ageing, it can also be considerably more full-bodied. – SUPERIORE.DE

Blanc de Noirs

Blanc de Noirs refers to a white sparkling wine made from red grape varieties. This is achieved by rapidly separating the pale juice from the pigment-rich grape skins, usually through direct and gentle pressing.

In Champagne, Pinot Noir and Meunier are the classic base varieties; in Italy, Pinot Nero is primarily used for this purpose. The term describes the origin of the juice, not necessarily the style: Blanc de Noirs can appear more full-bodied than Blanc de Blancs, though this is not always the case. Everything you need to know about sparkling wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Bleeding (Saignée)

Here, "bleeding (saignée)" refers to drawing off the juice that runs freely from the crushed grapes without pressure. It flows out solely under the weight of the grapes and is considered the finest part: low in sediment, low in tannins, and with a clear fruit flavour.

In white wine production, it is collected separately and is often aged on its own. For rosé, this same process can constitute the method itself: if, after a short settling period, part of the free-run juice is drawn off from the red wine mash, this produces a rosé, whilst the remainder remains more concentrated – the saignée method. – SUPERIORE.DE

Blend

"Verschnitt" is the German term for blending a wine from several batches – from different grape varieties, vineyard sites or vintages. Technically, it is a neutral term; in everyday German, however, it carries connotations of adulteration, which is why "cuvée" has largely become the accepted term. In the Romance-speaking wine-producing countries, the same practice – known as "assemblage", "uvaggio" or "coupage" – is regarded as the artisanal core of winemaking, not as a stopgap measure.

Blending takes place on three levels. In the vineyard, where different varieties are planted in mixed rows and harvested together – the "gemischter Satz", from which the Italian term "uvaggio" derives. In South Tyrol, some of these historic vineyards with vines over a hundred years old have been preserved and are now being vinified independently once again. Added to this is blending in the fermentation vessel, when the varieties are fermented together, and in the cellar, when wines that have been vinified separately are later combined. The aims are to balance acidity, colour and structure, as well as to achieve a consistent style across vintages. EU wine legislation permits up to 15 per cent of other grape varieties without the need for declaration when a specific variety is indicated; the regulations of individual appellations are often stricter and stipulate minimum proportions – for Brunello di Montalcino, for example, pure Sangiovese. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Cuvée

Body

Body describes the perceived weight of a wine on the palate – a textural sensation, not a flavour. It is commonly attributed solely to alcohol, but in fact several components contribute to it: alcohol increases viscosity, as does glycerine, which the yeasts produce from a small proportion of the sugar during fermentation. Added to this are extract compounds, residual sugar and, in red wines, mature tannins. Acidity acts as a counterbalance and makes a wine appear lighter.

This is why a wine rich in extract with moderate alcohol content can appear fuller-bodied than a high-alcohol wine with high acidity. The conditions for this are created in the vineyard through low yields and physiological ripeness, and in the cellar through extended yeast ageing, during which mannoproteins are released from the yeast cells, making the texture creamier. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Structure

Bolgheri DOC

Bolgheri DOC is a Tuscan appellation in the province of Livorno, whose production area comprises exclusively the municipality of Castagneto Carducci. Recognised as a DOC in 1983, it initially produced only white and rosé wines; it was not until the 1994 amendment that the red wines now characteristic of Bolgheri were included in the Disciplinare. For the red and rosé wines, the production regulations permit free blends of Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Cabernet Franc, supplemented by Syrah and Sangiovese, the latter up to 50% in each case.

In addition to Rosso, Rosso Superiore, Bianco and Rosato, the appellation includes the single-varietal wines Bolgheri Vermentino and Bolgheri Sauvignon (each with a minimum of 85%). The entire production process must take place within the municipality of Castagneto Carducci. A defining feature of the region is the interplay between its proximity to the sea and the Mediterranean-influenced vineyards of the Bolgheri amphitheatre, which lends the wines their characteristic freshness and structure. Everything you need to know about Bolgheri wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Bolgheri Sassicaia DOC

The Bolgheri Sassicaia DOC is a Tuscan appellation in Castagneto Carducci, in the province of Livorno, which is effectively reserved for a single estate – Tenuta San Guido. The Bolgheri DOC was recognised in 1983, with the Sassicaia sub-zone defined by the 1994 amendment to the Disciplinare; in 2013, it was established as a separate appellation. The wine is based on Cabernet Sauvignon (at least 80 per cent), supplemented by up to 20 per cent of other red grape varieties authorised in Tuscany; the ageing period is 24 months, of which at least 18 must be spent in barriques.

From the 1970s onwards, Sassicaia, as the prototype of the "Super Tuscans", spearheaded Tuscany's repositioning in the international premium segment; its reputation was cemented in blind tastings in which the wine held its own against Grands Crus from the Bordeaux region. Stylistically, it combines the classic Bordeaux structure with Tuscan sunshine and maritime influence – dense yet elegant tannins and excellent ageing potential are among its defining characteristics. Everything you need to know about Bolgheri wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Botrytis

Botrytis cinerea, grey mould, is an opportunistic pathogen that infects over two hundred plant species and produces two completely different outcomes in viticulture. Which of these occurs depends on the degree of ripeness and the weather conditions. If the fungus infects unripe berries and damp conditions persist, grey rot or soft rot develops: the berries lose their colour and aroma, and the harvest becomes unusable. This must be distinguished from sour rot, a separate form of damage involving yeasts, acetic acid bacteria and fruit flies. If, on the other hand, it infests fully ripe berries at a late stage, and damp nights alternate with dry, warm days, noble rot develops.

In both cases, the key factor is laccase, an enzyme produced by the fungus. It breaks down the red pigments, causing red wine to turn orange-brown, and leads to premature oxidation. Sulphurisation is of little help in this regard – even high doses do not inhibit it. Heat is effective, which is why thermovinification is used for affected grapes. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Noble Rot · Thermovinification

Bottle Ageing

Bottle ageing refers to the changes that occur in wine after bottling. Two processes take place simultaneously. One does not require oxygen: alcohol and acids slowly react to form esters, which produce fruity notes. The other is a slow reaction involving the small amount of oxygen that remains dissolved in the wine during bottling and is subsequently introduced through the closure. In addition, further chemical reactions take place, giving rise to tertiary aromas of leather, tobacco and undergrowth.

The amount of oxygen that seeps in is measured by the closure's oxygen transmission rate, known in technical terms as OTR. With natural cork, oxygen penetrates primarily between the cork and the neck of the bottle, and the values vary greatly from cork to cork – hence the well-known differences between two bottles of the same vintage. Screw caps can be adjusted via the sealing insert to a defined permeability, which may be higher or lower depending on the design. Both extremes come at a cost: too much oxygen causes a wine to age prematurely, whilst too little increases the risk of reductive notes developing in the bottle. – SUPERIORE.DE

Brachetto d'Acqui DOCG

Brachetto d'Acqui DOCG – also known as "Acqui DOCG" – is a Piedmontese appellation from the provinces of Asti and Alessandria, which was elevated to DOCG status in 1996. It is based on the indigenous Brachetto grape variety (at least 97 per cent), supplemented by up to 3 per cent of other grape varieties authorised in Piedmont. The Disciplinare recognises three types: still red wine (also known as "tappo raso"), spumante with its characteristic mushroom-shaped cork, and passito made from dried grapes.

The spumante is usually produced using the Martinotti method in a pressure vessel, which preserves the aromatic freshness of the Brachetto grape; the Classic method is also permitted. Brachetto is characterised by a ruby-red colour, a pronounced aroma of roses and red wild berries, and a sweet flavour with a restrained alcohol content. The Passito exhibits more concentrated fruit and higher alcohol levels. Everything you need to know about sparkling wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Brunello di Montalcino DOCG

Brunello di Montalcino DOCG is one of Tuscany's most iconic wine appellations; it has been recognised as a DOC since 1966 and, since 1980, as one of the very first Italian DOCGs. It is produced exclusively in the municipality of Montalcino in the province of Siena and must consist of 100 per cent Sangiovese, which is traditionally known here as "Brunello". The maximum grape yield is 80 quintals per hectare; vinification and ageing must take place within the DOCG zone.

The Disciplinare stipulates a minimum of 24 months' ageing in oak barrels and four months in the bottle. The wine may only be released for sale from 1 January of the fifth year following the harvest. For the Riserva, six months' bottle ageing and an additional year's waiting period apply. Characteristic features include an intense ruby-red to garnet-red colour, a firm tannic structure and high ageing potential; the addition of "Vigna" is permitted under the Disciplinare. Everything you need to know about Brunello wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Brut

Brut refers to sparkling wine with less than 12 grams of residual sugar per litre and is one of the most common designations on the dosage scale. The term is legally defined by its sugar content, not by a standardised taste profile.

At the lower end, "Brut" overlaps with "Extra Brut": a very dry sparkling wine may, analytically, fall into both categories; however, only one of the permitted designations is used on the label. A "Brut" with just a few grams of residual sugar may therefore taste significantly drier than one closer to the upper limit. Everything you need to know about sparkling wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Bulk Wine

Bulk wine refers to wine that is not marketed as a finished bottled product but is transported, traded or served in larger containers. Today these include tanks, tank containers, road tankers and bag-in-box systems; historically, wooden casks and demijohns played a greater role. "Bulk wine" therefore primarily describes a form of transport and marketing, not a legal quality category. Depending on origin and the relevant production rules, wines of different categories may be moved in bulk, although some protected designations impose requirements concerning bottling or the place of bottling.

Bulk wine is traded between growers, wineries and bottlers as well as sold or served directly to consumers as open wine. In Italy the term vino sfuso is commonly used for loose wine; vino della casa, by contrast, means the house wine of a restaurant and is not necessarily the same thing as bulk wine. Historically, the sale of loose wine was economically important in many European wine regions before estate bottling became far more widespread. – SUPERIORE.DE

Canelli DOCG

Canelli DOCG is a relatively new Piedmontese appellation, recognised at European level in 2023, which emerged from the former Canelli sub-zone of the Asti DOCG. It comprises 17 municipalities in the border region between Langhe and Monferrato in the provinces of Asti and Cuneo, at altitudes ranging from 150 to 600 metres. The wine is made exclusively from the Moscato Bianco grape; the production regulations recognise the categories Canelli Moscato and Canelli Moscato Riserva.

Hand-harvesting is mandatory and yields are strictly limited. Characteristic of the Moscato Bianco from the Canelli region are delicate aromatic notes of flowers, apricot and peach, accompanied by a typical fresh acidity. The new DOCG highlights the historical significance of the Canelli region for Italian sparkling wine culture: It was here, from the mid-19th century onwards, that the first major houses of Italian sparkling wine production emerged, whose underground vaulted cellars continue to shape the townscape to this day. Everything you need to know about Moscato wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Cannellino di Frascati DOCG

Cannellino di Frascati DOCG is a Roman-Latium sweet wine appellation from the Castelli Romani on the northern slopes of the Colli Albani, which was elevated to DOCG status in 2011. It is made primarily from Malvasia bianca di Candia and/or Malvasia del Lazio (also known as Malvasia Puntinata), accounting for at least 70 per cent of the blend; this is supplemented by up to 30 per cent of Bellone, Bombino bianco, Greco bianco, Trebbiano toscano and Trebbiano giallo. The growing area encompasses the municipalities of Frascati, Grottaferrata and Monte Porzio Catone, as well as parts of Rome and Montecompatri.

The grapes are harvested late and, in some cases, left to dry on the vine; in favourable vintages, Botrytis cinerea – known as "Muffa Nobile" – develops, bringing an additional concentration of aromas. Characteristic features include an intense golden-yellow colour, an aromatic bouquet of honey, apricot and exotic fruit, and a sweet flavour with well-preserved acidity. Everything you need to know about dessert wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Cannonau di Sardegna DOC

Cannonau di Sardegna DOC is a Sardinian appellation and the island's benchmark red wine, recognised since 1972. It is made primarily from the Cannonau grape (at least 85 per cent; at least 90 per cent for the Classico version), also known internationally as Grenache; the growing area covers the entire island. For the Classico version, only the provinces of Nuoro and Ogliastra are permitted. The Disciplinare recognises six categories: Rosso, Rosso Riserva, Rosato, Passito, Liquoroso and Classico.

Three sub-zones specify the origin: Oliena (or Nepente di Oliena), Capo Ferrato and Jerzu. The Riserva is aged for 24 months, at least six of which are spent in wooden barrels, and must have an alcohol content of at least 13% vol. Typical characteristics of the Cannonau grape include a ruby-red colour, a soft tannin structure and warm, Mediterranean aromas of red fruits, macchia herbs and Mediterranean spices. Everything you need to know about Cannonau wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Caratello

The caratello is a small wooden cask, usually holding between 25 and 200 litres, with 100 litres being the most common. The name derives from the Medieval Latin "carratum", a cask used for transporting wine by cart. It is used primarily in Tuscany for Vin Santo and in Emilia for traditional balsamic vinegar. Unlike with barriques and large casks, pure oak is rarely used: chestnut, cherry, mulberry and juniper are used individually or in combination, with each type of wood making its own contribution.

The caratello is not kept in a cool cellar, but in the vinsantaia, often under the roof – and this is deliberate. The temperature fluctuations between summer and winter drive the fermentation process and then bring it to a standstill, year after year, throughout the prescribed maturation period. The cask is not topped up, but filled to only about two-thirds of its capacity and sealed tightly, in some cases even bricked up; the loss through evaporation concentrates the sugar and aromas. Added to the must is the "madre", a yeast culture from previous vintages, which is passed down from one Caratello to the next. – SUPERIORE.DE

Carbonic Maceration

Carbonic maceration (French: macération carbonique) is a winemaking process in which whole, ideally intact grapes are placed for several days in a closed vessel with a carbon-dioxide-rich atmosphere. Intracellular metabolism begins inside the intact berries and produces, among other compounds, a small amount of alcohol. After maceration, the grapes are crushed and pressed; the separated must then continues fermentation without the solid grape material. In so-called semi-carbonic maceration, part of the carbon dioxide is generated by the fermentation of crushed berries in the lower part of the vessel.

The method is intended to produce supple, fresh, less acid-driven red or rosé wines with pronounced fruit and comparatively gentle tannins. Depending on the grapes and execution, distinctive fruity and ester-like aromas can develop. The technique is especially well known from Beaujolais but is also used in many other regions. In Italy it is relevant to Vino Novello: legal rules require at least 40% of the wine to be obtained by fermentation with carbonic maceration of whole grapes; unless the relevant production rules specify a later date, Novello may be released from 30 October of the harvest year. – SUPERIORE.DE

Carignano del Sulcis DOC

Carignano del Sulcis DOC is a Sardinian wine appellation from the south-west of the island, recognised since 1977. It is based on the Carignano grape (at least 85 per cent), also known internationally as Carignan. The growing region comprises 17 municipalities in the historic Sulcis area, including the islands of Sant'Antioco and San Pietro, often on sandy soils that largely survived the phylloxera epidemic of the 19th century.

Six wine types are permitted: Rosso, Rosso Riserva, Rosso Superiore, Rosato, Novello and Passito. The Superiore is made from Alberello vines (a bush-trained training system), whilst the Riserva is aged for at least two years, including six months in the bottle. Carignano from Sulcis is characterised by a deep ruby-red colour, robust tannins and Mediterranean aromas with maritime undertones. Everything you need to know about Carignano wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Carmignano DOCG

Carmignano is one of Tuscany's oldest and smallest red wine appellations, situated on the hills of Montalbano, west of Florence in the province of Prato. What makes it unique is its official Cabernet content: according to tradition, the Medici brought the variety from France to the area, where it is still known today as "uva francesca", which is why Carmignano is regarded as the forerunner of the Super Tuscans. As early as 1716, Grand Duke Cosimo III demarcated the area by edict, one of the earliest designations of origin in existence. The blend combines Sangiovese (at least 50 per cent) with Canaiolo and 10 to 20 per cent Cabernet Franc and/or Cabernet Sauvignon. Recognised as a DOC in 1975, Carmignano was elevated to DOCG status in 1990.

Sangiovese lends the wine freshness as well as its characteristic cherry and violet notes, whilst the Cabernet contributes structure, dark spice and ageing potential. It is traditionally aged in oak or chestnut barrels and is released onto the market in the second year at the earliest, with the Riserva not appearing until the third. Stylistically, the range extends from the approachable basic style to the dense, long-lived Riserva. Carmignano thus combines Tuscan tradition with international elegance that is unrivalled in the region. Everything you need to know about Tuscan wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Cartizze

Cartizze is the historic sub-zone of the Conegliano Valdobbiadene Prosecco Superiore DOCG, situated within the municipality of Valdobbiadene, centred around San Pietro di Barbozza, Santo Stefano and Saccol. The area has been demarcated since 1969 and is one of the steepest sites in the appellation; the grapes for Superiore di Cartizze must be harvested by hand.

The grape varieties must comply with the DOCG requirements: at least 85 per cent Glera, supplemented by up to 15 per cent of authorised local varieties such as Verdiso, Bianchetta Trevigiana, Perera and Glera Lunga. The name "Cartizze" refers to the origin, not a specific level of sweetness; the dosage is indicated using the general terms for sparkling wines. Everything you need to know about Prosecco wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Casauria (Terre di Casauria) DOCG

The Casauria DOCG – officially "Casauria" or "Terre di Casauria" – is a relatively new appellation from the province of Pescara in Abruzzo, which was recognised at European level in 2025 and emerged from the former Casauria sub-zone of Montepulciano d'Abruzzo. It is the third DOCG in Abruzzo, following the Colline Teramane Montepulciano d'Abruzzo (2003) and the Terre Tollesi or Tullum (2019). It is based on the Montepulciano grape.

The growing region extends around the Abbey of San Clemente a Casauria in the central Pescara Valley, historically shaped by the monastic wine-growing culture of the Middle Ages. Its designation as an independent DOCG highlights the unique soil and climate characteristics of the Casauria area within the Montepulciano d'Abruzzo zone, which are defined by its altitude and proximity to the Apennines. The Montepulciano from Casauria is characterised by a deep ruby-red colour and a dense, structured profile with good ageing potential. Everything you need to know about Abruzzo wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Castel del Monte Bombino Nero DOCG

The Castel del Monte Bombino Nero DOCG is a distinctive Apulian appellation: it is one of the few Italian DOCGs dedicated to rosé wines. Elevated to DOCG status in 2011, it was separated from the Castel del Monte DOC and honours one of Apulia's most important indigenous grape varieties, the Bombino Nero (at least 90 per cent). The growing region encompasses the Murgia Centrale area in the province of Barletta-Andria-Trani and, in part, the province of Bari, centred around the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Castel del Monte.

Despite its dark blue berries, Bombino Nero traditionally produces rosé wines because the grape variety develops relatively few pigments and tannins. Characteristic features include a cherry-red colour of medium intensity, an aromatic bouquet of strawberry and raspberry, and a balanced, fresh flavour with good body. The grape variety is traditionally grown on the limestone plateau of the Murgia. Everything you need to know about Apulian wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Castel del Monte DOC

The Castel del Monte DOC is an Apulian wine appellation located in the province of Barletta-Andria-Trani and partly in the province of Bari, named after the Staufer castle of the same name built by Emperor Frederick II, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The wine-growing region encompasses several municipalities in the Murgia Centrale area around Minervino Murge and Andria. Three independent DOCGs have been carved out of the base DOC: Castel del Monte Bombino Nero (2011), Castel del Monte Nero di Troia Riserva and Castel del Monte Rosso Riserva.

The classification includes single-varietal white wines (Chardonnay, Sauvignon, Bombino Bianco), blended white wines and single-varietal red wines (Nero di Troia, Aglianico, Cabernet), also available as rosé, with the "Riserva" designation for Aglianico and Cabernet. Characteristic features of the region are the limestone-rich highlands of the Murgia and a warm Mediterranean climate, which are reflected in the wines through ripe fruit and a pronounced body. Everything you need to know about Apulian wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Castel del Monte Nero di Troia Riserva DOCG

In 2011, the Castel del Monte Nero di Troia Riserva DOCG was established as a separate designation within the Castel del Monte DOC – an Apulian red wine appellation based on the indigenous Nero di Troia grape. It is based on the indigenous Nero di Troia grape variety (also known as Uva di Troia), which must account for at least 90 per cent of the blend; this is supplemented by up to 10 per cent of other red grape varieties authorised in Apulia. The growing region comprises municipalities in the Murgia Centrale area in the provinces of Barletta-Andria-Trani and Bari, surrounding the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Castel del Monte.

The Disciplinare stipulates that the Riserva must be aged for at least 24 months, of which at least 12 months must be spent in wooden barrels and 6 months in the bottle; the ageing period begins on 1 November of the harvest year. Typical characteristics of Nero di Troia include a deep ruby-red colour with garnet-red hues as it ages, a firm tannic structure and a pronounced aroma of red fruits and spices. The Riserva often displays spicy, balsamic tertiary aromas resulting from barrel ageing. Everything you need to know about Apulian wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Castel del Monte Rosso Riserva DOCG

Castel del Monte Rosso Riserva is one of Apulia's top-tier red wine appellations, named after the octagonal Staufer castle of Emperor Frederick II, which towers over the northern Alta Murgia. The growing region lies in the provinces of Barletta-Andria-Trani and Bari on limestone-rich hillside soils, where significant day-night temperature variations give the wines their freshness and aroma. The backbone of the blend is the indigenous Nero di Troia, which accounts for at least 65 per cent of the blend, complemented by other red varieties from the region. Established as a DOC in 1971, the Riserva was recognised as a separate DOCG in 2011, deliberately building on the region's long-standing tradition of long-ageing red wines.

The "Riserva" designation requires at least two years' ageing, including one year in wood. Nero di Troia defines the final product: a deep colour, firm, grainy tannins and dark, spicy fruit, which develops balsamic and earthy tertiary notes during bottle ageing. The result is a structured southern Italian wine designed for ageing, showcasing the cooler, higher-altitude side of Apulia, far removed from the cliché of a heavy, jammy "heat wine". Everything you need to know about Apulian wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Castelli di Jesi Verdicchio Riserva DOCG

The Castelli di Jesi Verdicchio Riserva DOCG is one of the two Marche DOCGs for Verdicchio (alongside the Verdicchio di Matelica Riserva). Recognised in 2010 and separated from the Verdicchio dei Castelli di Jesi DOC, it requires a minimum of 85 per cent Verdicchio; the production area comprises 22 municipalities in the province of Ancona and 2 in the province of Macerata, historically named after the medieval castles surrounding the town of Jesi.

The Disciplinare stipulates a minimum ageing period of 18 months, of which at least 6 months must be spent in the bottle; the ageing period begins on 1 December of the vintage year. Characteristic of the Riserva are a deep golden-yellow colour, a complex bouquet of ripe yellow fruit, citrus and honey notes, and a creamy flavour with a long finish – characteristics that underline Verdicchio's reputation as one of Italy's longest-lived white wines. Everything you need to know about Verdicchio wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Cerasuolo d'Abruzzo DOC

Cerasuolo d'Abruzzo DOC is an Abruzzo wine appellation, recognised as a separate DOC in 2010 – previously a sub-type of the Montepulciano d'Abruzzo DOC. It is made primarily from the Montepulciano grape (at least 85 per cent), supplemented by up to 15 per cent of other red grape varieties authorised in Abruzzo. The production area covers the provinces of Chieti, L'Aquila, Pescara and Teramo.

The name "Cerasuolo" refers to the wine's cherry-red colour, which is due to the highly pigmented Montepulciano grape, even with a short maceration period. Characteristic features include an intense cherry-red hue, an aromatic bouquet of red wild berries, orange peel and spices, and a dry, full-bodied flavour with lively acidity. Stylistically, this makes Cerasuolo closer to a light red wine than to a classic rosé. Everything you need to know about Abruzzo wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Cerasuolo di Vittoria DOCG

Cerasuolo di Vittoria DOCG comes from south-eastern Sicily; its delimited production area covers parts of the provinces of Ragusa, Caltanissetta and Catania. The red wine is made from 50 to 70% Nero d'Avola and 30 to 50% Frappato. Nero d'Avola contributes body, colour and darker fruit, while Frappato adds fragrance, freshness and a lighter floral-fruity character. The name "Cerasuolo" refers to the wine's cherry-red colour. Recognised as a DOC in 1973, Cerasuolo di Vittoria was promoted to DOCG in 2005. Cerasuolo di Vittoria and Cerasuolo di Vittoria Classico share the same grape proportions and delimited production area, but the Classico may only be released later.

In the glass, Cerasuolo di Vittoria combines the fruit and structure of Nero d'Avola with the fragrant freshness of Frappato. The result is generally a medium-bodied red with lively acidity and fine tannins that can be approachable when young while gaining depth with age. The Classico version has additional time to develop because of its longer mandatory maturation. Everything you need to know about Sicilian wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Cesanese del Piglio DOCG

Cesanese del Piglio DOCG – also officially known simply as "Piglio" – is Lazio's first DOCG, having been established in 2008 from the existing DOC (1973). It is made primarily from the indigenous red grape varieties Cesanese di Affile and/or Cesanese comune, accounting for at least 90 per cent of the blend, supplemented by up to 10 per cent of other red grape varieties authorised in Lazio. The growing area comprises five municipalities in the province of Frosinone (Piglio, Serrone, Acuto, Anagni and Paliano) on the hillsides of the Monti Ernici at altitudes between 200 and 600 metres.

The production regulations recognise two categories: the standard wine (at least 12% vol) and the Superiore (at least 13% vol). The "Superiore" may bear the designation "Riserva" if it is aged for at least 20 months, including 6 months in the bottle, and reaches an alcohol content of at least 14% vol. Characteristic features of Cesanese include a ruby-red colour with violet hues in the young wine, a smooth, full-bodied flavour with a slightly bitter finish, and an aromatic bouquet of red fruits. Cesanese di Affile is considered the more refined of the two biotypes. Everything you need to know about Lazio wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Chianti Classico DOCG

Chianti Classico refers to the historic core area of the Chianti region in Tuscany, situated between Florence and Siena, whose boundaries date back to an edict issued by Cosimo III in 1716. The Consorzio, Italy's oldest wine consortium, was founded as early as 1924; its coat of arms, featuring the black rooster (Gallo Nero), has been a mandatory distinguishing mark on every bottle since 2005. The DOC designation followed in 1967, and the DOCG in 1996. The base grape variety is Sangiovese, accounting for 80 to 100 per cent, supplemented by other red varieties authorised for use in Tuscany. Unlike with standard Chianti, international grape varieties such as Cabernet and Merlot are permitted, but in limited quantities.

The appellation has three quality levels with progressively higher requirements: Annata, with a minimum of twelve months' ageing, as the entry-level category; Riserva, with 24 months' ageing (including three in the bottle); and, since 2014, the top category, Gran Selezione, with 30 months' ageing using exclusively estate-grown grapes. Approved by the Consorzio in 2021 and published by the Ministry in 2023, a site-classification system was introduced comprising the eleven UGA (Unità Geografiche Aggiuntive), which highlights the distinctive characteristics of individual zones such as Panzano, Lamole and Castellina; from the 2027 vintage onwards, Gran Selezione must also contain at least 90 per cent Sangiovese, with no international grape varieties. Stylistically, the DOCG thus ranges from the lively, fruity Annata to the structured, long-ageing Gran Selezione with a distinct terroir profile. Everything you need to know about Chianti wines and the top category, Chianti Classico Gran Selezione. – SUPERIORE.DE

Chianti Classico Gran Selezione DOCG

Chianti Classico Gran Selezione DOCG is the top category of the Chianti Classico DOCG, introduced in 2014; the grapes must come exclusively from the producer's own vineyards or from vineyards managed by the producer. The wine is produced from a careful selection of the producer's own grapes and is aged for at least 30 months, including 3 months in the bottle. Its analytical values and sensory assessment exceed those of the Riserva category.

From the 2027 vintage onwards, stricter rules will apply: Sangiovese must account for at least 90 per cent of the blend, with international varieties excluded; the remaining 10 per cent may only come from eight indigenous varieties. As the only Chianti Classico category, Gran Selezione is permitted to feature one of the eleven Unità Geografiche Aggiuntive (UGA) on the label. Everything you need to know about Chianti Classico Gran Selezione. – SUPERIORE.DE

Cirò Classico DOCG

Cirò Classico is Calabria's first DOCG, recognised in July 2025 by EU Regulation 2025/1518. The wine-growing region is situated on the Ionian coast in the province of Crotone and is limited to the municipalities of Cirò and Cirò Marina, where mineral-rich sedimentary soils, a Mediterranean climate and the proximity to the Sila mountains shape the character of the wines. Winegrowing here dates back over 2,500 years to the era of Magna Graecia; the 1969 DOC is one of the oldest in Italy, and with the new DOCG, its core has now been transferred to a separate, stricter set of regulations.

The backbone of the region is the indigenous Gaglioppo, which must account for at least 90 per cent, supplemented by a maximum of 10 per cent Magliocco or Greco Nero; international varieties are excluded. The vines are trained using the alberello method or on trellises; yields are strictly limited, and bottling must take place within the designated zone. A minimum of 36 months' ageing is required before sale, six of which must be spent in wood. Gaglioppo produces a light ruby colour, lively acidity and fine tannins that soften with age. The DOCG thus sets a new benchmark for Calabrian winemaking. Everything you need to know about Calabrian wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Classico

"Classico" is an Italian wine classification designation that identifies a wine from the original, historic core area of a DOC or DOCG region. It refers to the oldest wine-growing area within a designation that has expanded over time: the place where the winemaking tradition first originated and where the best soils, sites and microclimates are often found. Legally, "Classico" is not a standalone quality designation, but a geographical supplementary designation; inclusion within a designation and the demarcation of the Classico zone are governed by the relevant Disciplinare.

Among the best-known Classico zones are Chianti Classico (the core area between Florence and Siena, whose boundaries date back to an edict by Cosimo III in 1716), Soave Classico around the town of Soave, Valpolicella Classico at the heart of the Veronese vineyards around Fumane, Marano and Negrar, and Bardolino Classico on Lake Garda. In some cases, the Classico zone was later elevated to an independent DOCG, as with Cirò Classico since 2025. The designation is therefore more than a mere formality: it marks the historical roots of a appellation and often its most mature expression. – SUPERIORE.DE

Cold Maceration

Cold maceration refers to a period during which the must is left to stand at a low temperature prior to fermentation. The must is cooled and left to stand for a few days before the yeasts begin to work.

The purpose of this stems from the solubility behaviour of the constituents: colouring compounds dissolve in the aqueous phase, whereas tannins from the seeds require alcohol. Extraction trials clearly demonstrate both points – the yield increases with both temperature and alcohol content, although catechins from the seeds are only released in the presence of alcohol. In the cool, alcohol-free phase, therefore, colour and aromas pass into the must without the harsh tannins from the seeds being carried over. At the same time, the cold inhibits the yeasts until the desired extraction has been achieved. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Maceration · Thermovinification

Colli Bolognesi Pignoletto DOCG

The Colli Bolognesi Pignoletto DOCG is an Emilian white wine appellation from the foothills of the Apennines in the province of Bologna and, to a lesser extent, in the province of Modena. Elevated to DOCG status in 2010 (initially as "Colli Bolognesi Classico Pignoletto") and renamed in 2014 following an expansion of its designated area, it is one of the few DOCGs in Emilia-Romagna. It is based on the Pignoletto grape variety (officially Grechetto gentile, also known locally as Alionzina), which must account for at least 85 per cent; this is supplemented by up to 15 per cent of other white grape varieties authorised in the region.

The wine is available in the following styles: Superiore (still), as well as Frizzante and Spumante, the latter in various levels of sweetness ranging from Brut Nature to Extra Dry. Pignoletto is characterised by a delicate straw-yellow colour, a delicate aroma of white flowers, white fruit and citrus, and a dry, fresh flavour with lively acidity and a slightly almondy, bitter finish. Everything you need to know about Emilia-Romagna wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Colli di Conegliano DOCG

Colli di Conegliano DOCG is a Venetian appellation from the hills north of Conegliano in the province of Treviso, which was elevated to DOCG status in 2011. Its distinctive feature lies in its unusual diversity: the production regulations recognise four distinct types – Bianco (made from a blend of white grape varieties), Rosso (also available as Riserva), Refrontolo (a Passito made from at least 95 per cent Marzemino) and Torchiato di Fregona (a white Passito made from Verdiso, Boschera and other indigenous varieties). The growing area comprises 20 municipalities at the foot of the Treviso Pre-Alps.

For the two Passito types, natural drying of the grapes is mandatory; the Torchiato di Fregona achieves a minimum total alcohol content of 18% vol and is aged for 24 months, five of which are spent in the bottle, whilst the Refrontolo Passito has a total alcohol content of 16% vol. A defining feature of the appellation is the combination of Alpine-influenced coolness in the north and Mediterranean-influenced warmth in the south, which benefits a wide range of wine styles. Everything you need to know about Veneto wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Colli Euganei DOC

The Colli Euganei DOC is a Venetian appellation in the province of Padua, recognised since 1969. It encompasses the volcanic hills of the Colli Euganei within the nature park of the same name – a geological peculiarity: extinct volcanic slopes rising from the Po Valley. In 2010, the Colli Euganei Fior d'Arancio DOCG (based on Moscato Giallo) was spun off from the base DOC.

The production regulations cover a wide range of wine types – white wines (Chardonnay, Pinot Bianco, Pinot Grigio, Sauvignon, Serprino) and red wines, including international varieties such as Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc, which were introduced to the Colli Euganei as early as 1850. The vineyards are situated at altitudes ranging from 50 to around 400 metres; the temperate climate, with its almost Mediterranean influence, and the volcanic soil give the appellation's wines freshness and structure. Everything you need to know about Veneto wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Colli Euganei Fior d'Arancio DOCG

The Colli Euganei Fior d'Arancio DOCG – also officially known as 'Fior d'Arancio Colli Euganei' – is a Venetian appellation for wines made from Moscato Giallo in the province of Padua. Elevated to DOCG status in 2010 and separated from the Colli Euganei DOC (where it had been a sub-category since 1969), it requires a minimum of 95 per cent Moscato Giallo, supplemented by up to 5 per cent of other aromatic grape varieties authorised in Padua. The growing area comprises 16 municipalities on the volcanic hills of the Colli Euganei.

The regulations provide for three categories: still wine, which ranges from dry to sweet; spumante; and passito. The name 'Fior d'Arancio' (orange blossom) refers to the characteristic aroma of this Moscato Giallo variant: intense notes of orange blossom, yellow stone fruit and honey – enhanced by the volcanic soil and the marked day-night temperature differences of the Colli Euganei. Everything you need to know about dessert wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Colli Orientali del Friuli Picolit DOCG

Colli Orientali del Friuli Picolit is a small, prestigious sweet wine appellation from Friuli, elevated to DOCG status in 2006 and dedicated exclusively to the indigenous Picolit grape, one of the few Italian varieties traditionally used solely for dessert wine. The growing region encompasses the eastern hills of the province of Udine, which stretch from the Friuli plain to near the Slovenian border. As early as the 18th century, Picolit was regarded as a wine for European courts, prized by everyone from the Habsburgs to the Vatican.

The variety is famous for a botanical curiosity: the so-called "acinellatura", a process whereby, even at the flowering stage, only ten to fifteen berries per bunch ripen. This results in extremely low yields, but a natural concentration of sugar, acidity and aroma. The grapes are often left on the vine to dry further. The wine is golden yellow in colour, sweet or semi-sweet, with a delicate aroma of dried fruit, acacia honey and a characteristic mineral finish. The Cialla sub-zone imposes stricter rules and permits a "Riserva" with four years' ageing. Everything you need to know about Friuli wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Colline Teramane Montepulciano d'Abruzzo DOCG

Colline Teramane Montepulciano d'Abruzzo is Abruzzo's first DOCG, having emerged in 2003 as a separate appellation from a sub-zone of the Montepulciano d'Abruzzo DOC that was established in 1995. The wine-growing region extends across more than thirty municipalities in the province of Teramo, between the Adriatic coast and the foothills of the Gran Sasso. The wine must be made primarily from the indigenous Montepulciano grape, accounting for at least 90 per cent, supplemented by a maximum of 10 per cent Sangiovese; other varieties are excluded. Vinification and bottling must take place in the province of Teramo.

Compared with the broader Montepulciano d'Abruzzo DOC, the DOCG imposes significantly stricter limits: lower yields, higher vine density and stricter ageing requirements. The standard wine is aged for at least one year, including two months in the bottle; the Riserva for three years, including one year in wood. Colour, aroma and structure reflect the character of the grape variety: deep ruby red with garnet-red highlights when mature, an ethereal, spicy nose, and dense, velvety tannins. The spectrum thus ranges from the fruit-driven basic wine to the structured, long-lived Riserva, which showcases Montepulciano at its most expressive. Everything you need to know about Montepulciano wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Collio DOC

The Collio DOC – also officially known as "Collio Goriziano" – is a Friulian wine region in the province of Gorizia, right on the Slovenian border. It is regarded as one of the most important white wine regions in northern Italy: Production is predominantly focused on white wines, mainly made from Friulano, Pinot Grigio, Sauvignon, Ribolla Gialla, Malvasia Istriana, Chardonnay and Pinot Bianco. The wine-growing area is situated on the hillsides of Cormons, Dolegna del Collio and San Floriano del Collio.

A defining feature of the Collio is the "Ponca" – an Eocene flysch composed of calcareous marl and sandstone, which gives the wines their characteristic minerality. The climate is characterised by Alpine and Mediterranean influences, with marked differences between day and night temperatures. Since the 1970s, Collio has been one of Italy's most innovative white wine regions and played a key role in the Italian skin-contact and orange wine movements. Everything you need to know about Friuli wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Collio Goriziano DOC

→ See Collio DOC

Complexity

Complexity refers to the number and interplay of the layers a wine exhibits – in its aroma, on the palate and in its finish. Technically speaking, three sources can be distinguished: primary aromas are inherent to the grape variety; secondary aromas develop during fermentation and ageing; and tertiary aromas emerge during bottle ageing. A wine is considered complex when several of these layers are present simultaneously, without one overpowering the others.

Complexity is not the same as intensity: a very aromatic wine can be one-dimensional, whilst a more restrained one can be multi-layered. It is enhanced by low yields, older vines, diversity in the harvest and ageing that allows time to develop – such as prolonged yeast ageing or bottle ageing. As the wine ages, the balance shifts: primary aromas recede, whilst tertiary aromas emerge. – SUPERIORE.DE

Concrete Egg

The concrete egg has been in use since the early 2000s and differs from a concrete tank in one crucial respect: it is not lined on the inside, so the wine comes into direct contact with the material. Typical sizes range from 500 to 1,500 litres. Like wood, the porous concrete allows a small amount of oxygen to pass through, but releases neither tannins nor aroma – and that is precisely its purpose.

Because concrete is alkaline and wine is acidic, the inner surface is treated with tartaric acid paste before the first filling. A Bavarian study monitored two vintages analytically, examining the transfer of alkali, alkaline earth and heavy metal ions. The thermal inertia of the concrete has a physical basis, as does the observation that the cornerless shape keeps the yeast suspended for longer. The frequently cited argument regarding the Golden Ratio, however, has no oenological basis. – SUPERIORE.DE

Concrete Tank

From the second half of the 19th century right through to the 1970s, the concrete tank was the standard container for large volumes; it was subsequently replaced by the stainless-steel tank, which is easier to clean and allows for better temperature control. Capacities in the five-figure litre range are common.

The concrete merely forms the load-bearing shell: traditionally, the inner walls are lined with glass, ceramic, steel or plastic, so that the wine does not come into contact with the building material. More recent oenological concrete tanks, on the other hand, are deliberately used unlined. Their enduring advantage lies in the inertia of the mass – thick walls keep the temperature largely constant even without cooling technology. For this reason, concrete tanks have been making something of a comeback in recent years. – SUPERIORE.DE

Conegliano Valdobbiadene Prosecco Superiore DOCG

The Conegliano Valdobbiadene Prosecco Superiore DOCG is the historic heartland of Prosecco, recognised as a DOC since 1969 and as a DOCG since 2009. The wine-growing region comprises 15 municipalities in the hills between Conegliano and Valdobbiadene in the province of Treviso; the cultural landscape has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2019. Italy's first school of oenology was founded in Conegliano as early as 1876, making the town a historic centre of Italian sparkling wine culture. The wine is based on the Glera grape (at least 85 per cent), supplemented by up to 15 per cent Verdiso, Bianchetta Trevigiana, Perera and other approved white grape varieties.

In addition to Spumante as the basic type, the Disciplinare recognises several special categories with stricter requirements: the 43 "Rive" (Unità Geografiche Aggiuntive for individual municipalities or hamlets, with mandatory hand-harvesting and vintage designation), the Superiore di Cartizze from a strictly defined sub-zone, often referred to as the denomination's "Grand Cru", and the traditional "Sui Lieviti" style, which undergoes bottle fermentation. The steep slopes – some with gradients of over 60 per cent – are largely cultivated by hand and have earned the region a reputation for "viticoltura eroica". In addition, there are sweetness levels ranging from Extra Brut to Dry. Everything you need to know about Prosecco wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Conero DOCG

Conero is one of the few DOCG designations in the Marche region, having emerged in 2004 from the Rosso Conero DOC, which was recognised in 1967: What was previously known as Rosso Conero DOC Riserva was transferred, from the 2004 vintage onwards, to its own, stricter DOCG regulations; Rosato and Metodo Classico are now also permitted under these regulations, whilst the DOC designation remains in place for the basic version. The wine-growing area is situated in the province of Ancona, surrounding Monte Conero, which rises to a height of 572 metres on the Adriatic Sea, with a natural amphitheatre of vineyards encircling the mountain. The wine is based on Montepulciano grapes, comprising at least 85 per cent, supplemented by a maximum of 15 per cent Sangiovese.

The calcareous clay soils of marine origin and the cooling influence of the nearby sea lend the Montepulciano here a pronounced freshness combined with a firm structure. The wine is aged for at least 24 months before release. The result is a deep ruby red colour, turning garnet with age, with a spicy, fruity nose and firm, velvety tannins. The DOCG thus represents the pinnacle of red wines from the Marche region. Everything you need to know about Marche wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Copper-Coloured

The term "copper-coloured" describes a white wine with a reddish-orange tinge. There are two very different reasons behind this. In the case of Ramato, the colour is intentional: the Pinot Grigio grapes are grey-pink in colour, and brief contact between the must and the skins transfers this hue to the wine – a Friulian tradition.

A similar hue arises unintentionally through oxidation when a white wine is exposed to too much oxygen; in such cases, subtle notes of nut or apple peel usually develop. The colour alone therefore reveals little – it is only when combined with the aroma that it becomes clear which is the case. – SUPERIORE.DE

Crushing

Crushing refers to the process of crushing the grapes so that the juice can be released. The result is the mash – a mixture of juice, skins, seeds and, depending on the method, stems. It is only once the solid components have been separated that the liquid is referred to as must.

The aim is extraction: colouring compounds and aromas are released from the skins, whilst tannins are released from the skins and seeds. The degree of crushing helps determine how much of these compounds ends up in the wine. It is crucial not to damage the seeds – their oils oxidise and produce rancid notes. A good crusher compresses the berries just enough for the juice to be released. Some producers avoid crushing altogether and allow the berries to burst under their own weight. – SUPERIORE.DE

Cultured Yeasts

Cultured yeasts are specifically selected and propagated yeast strains that are added to the must. They have been available since the early 20th century; the initial aim was to ensure reliable fermentation – a reliable start and a complete fermentation process without stalling. Today, strains are also selected for their aromatic characteristics: some are deliberately neutral, whilst others emphasise specific notes.

Their use is widespread where the risk of spontaneous fermentation is high: at cool fermentation temperatures, as is common in white wine production; in musts with a very high sugar content; when the grapes are not entirely flawless; and in base wines for sparkling wine, where a neutral fermentation is desired. Hybrid methods are common – spontaneous initiation followed by the addition of selected yeast strains later on if fermentation stalls. – SUPERIORE.DE

Cuvée

The term "cuvée" derives from the French "cuve", meaning fermentation tank, and originally simply referred to its contents. Its current meaning varies depending on the language area: in French, a cuvée is any batch from a winery that is bottled separately – this may be a blend, but it may just as easily be a single-varietal wine from a specific vineyard. In Champagne, the term also refers to the must from the first, gentle pressing, for which 2,050 litres may be extracted from 4,000 kilograms of grapes. In German usage, however, the narrower meaning has become established: "Cuvée" as a synonym for a blend.

In Italian, a finer distinction is made. "Uvaggio" refers to different grape varieties being harvested together and fermented together – the historical practice of mixed vine rows. "Assemblaggio" refers to separate vinification followed by blending during ageing, whilst "taglio" denotes the blending of base wines prior to ageing. In Italy, the term "cuvée" itself is primarily used in relation to sparkling wine: it refers to the blending of base wines, which is carried out before the second fermentation. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Blend

Délestage

In the délestage process, the fermenting must is completely drained from the fermentation vessel, allowing the marc to be pressed under its own weight. The must then slowly flows back over the cap of marc. The process is repeated several times until the desired level of extraction is achieved.

The aim is less about the quantity and more about the nature of the extraction: the method produces softer tannins and a more stable colour, whilst the extraction tends to be more moderate than with pumping over. Whilst the tank is empty, the seeds can also be removed through a sieve – these being the components from which the harshest tannins originate. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Punch-Down · Pump-over

Demi-Sec

In the context of sparkling wine, "Demi-Sec" refers to a residual sugar content of 32 to 50 grams per litre, making it the second-sweetest category on the EU scale. The corresponding permitted terms include "halbtrocken" in German and "abboccato" in Italian.

The sweetness is clearly perceptible, but in sparkling wine it is also balanced by acidity and carbonation. Demi-Sec is relatively rare nowadays and is often used for fruit-forward or dessert-style wines. Everything you need to know about sparkling wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Destemming

Destemming, also known as de-stemming, refers to the process of separating the berries from the stem structure, the stems. This is carried out by a destemming machine: a spiked shaft conveys the grapes against a perforated screen, which plucks the berries from the stems. The reason lies in the phenols in the stems – they impart harsh, astringent tannins and green, herbaceous notes, particularly when the stems are not fully mature.

The deliberate decision not to destem is known as whole-bunch fermentation and is no longer regarded as negligence, but as a stylistic choice: with fully ripened stems and gentle handling, the stems release fewer tannins than the berries themselves. Many producers do not agitate the mash mechanically, but simply pump the must over it – extraction similar to that of an infusion. In whole-bunch pressing, the grapes also remain intact; for the base wine of Champagne, this method is even mandatory. – SUPERIORE.DE

Diano d'Alba DOCG

The Diano d'Alba DOCG – also officially known as "Dolcetto di Diano d'Alba" – is a Piedmontese appellation comprising a single municipality: the town of Diano d'Alba in the province of Cuneo, south-east of Alba. Recognised as a DOC in 1974 and upgraded to DOCG status in 2010, it requires 100 per cent Dolcetto. A distinctive feature is the early classification of vineyard sites: as early as 1988, 76 sun-exposed vineyard sites were officially demarcated as "Sörì" (Piedmontese for "sunny spot") – an early cru mapping of the Langhe.

Two types are permitted: the basic type (at least 12% vol) and the Superiore (at least 12.5% vol, aged for at least 10 months). Both may bear the designation "Vigna" or the Menzione Geografica Aggiuntiva. Characteristic of Dolcetto from Diano d'Alba are a deep ruby-red colour, a soft tannic structure and a dry, almondy-nutty finish. Everything you need to know about Dolcetto wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Disgorgement

Disgorgement refers to the removal of the yeast sediment from the bottle after bottle fermentation. It is prepared by remuage, during which the sediment collects in the neck of the bottle.

The most common method is disgorgement "à la glace": the neck of the bottle is chilled, the sediment freezes into a plug and is ejected by the internal pressure when the bottle is opened. With disgorgement "à la volée", this takes place without freezing. A dosage may then follow. A stated disgorgement date primarily indicates the time elapsed since this stage of the process; the duration of ageing on the lees cannot be reliably determined from this alone. Everything you need to know about sparkling wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

DOC

DOC (Denominazione di Origine Controllata) is the Italian quality classification for wines with a controlled designation of origin. It was introduced in 1963, modelled on the French Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée, and regulates the growing area, permitted grape varieties, cultivation methods, yields, winemaking and sensory characteristics for each protected designation. Italy's first DOC was awarded in 1966: Vernaccia di San Gimignano.

Italy currently has around 330 DOC designations, plus around 80 DOCG wines and over 100 IGT designations; together, they form the national classification system. Above the DOC is the DOCG (garantita), which is additionally guaranteed by the state and is only awarded after at least seven years as a DOC; below the DOC comes the IGT as a geographical indication of origin with less stringent rules. Since 2010, all DOC wines have been classified under EU law as DOP (Denominazione di Origine Protetta); both designations are valid, though Italian labels usually feature the national designation. See also: DOP. – SUPERIORE.DE

DOCG

DOCG (Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita) is the highest quality classification under Italian wine law and was introduced in 1980 to complement the DOC classification. It distinguishes wines that not only bear a controlled designation of origin but are also guaranteed by the state: through a band around the neck of the bottle, an official chemical-analytical and sensory assessment, and stricter requirements regarding cultivation, yield and winemaking than those for a DOC.

A prerequisite for DOCG recognition is that a wine must have held DOC status for at least seven years and be regarded as particularly valuable due to its quality and historical significance. The first three DOCGs were awarded in July 1980 to Brunello di Montalcino, Barolo and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano; Barbaresco followed in October 1980 as the fourth. Chianti Classico was granted this status in 1996. Italy currently has around 80 DOCG designations, spread across most of the country's regions; they represent the pinnacle of the Italian wine system. Like DOC wines, DOCG wines are also classified as DOP under EU law. See also: DOP. – SUPERIORE.DE

Dogliani (Dolcetto di Dogliani Sup.) DOCG

The Dogliani DOCG – also known as "Dolcetto di Dogliani Superiore" – is a Piedmontese wine appellation from the southern part of the Langhe in the province of Cuneo. Recognised in 1974 as a DOC "Dolcetto di Dogliani" and elevated to DOCG status in 2005, the "Dogliani" and "Dogliani Superiore" classifications were merged under a single DOCG in 2011. The wine is made exclusively from Dolcetto (100 per cent); the production area encompasses 14 municipalities in their entirety and parts of a further seven in the province of Cuneo, with Dogliani at its centre, bordering the Barolo zone to the north.

The Disciplinare recognises two classifications: the standard wine (at least 12% vol) and the Dogliani Superiore (at least 13% vol, aged for at least 12 months, with a maximum yield of 7 t/ha). The vineyards are situated on hillsides at altitudes between 250 and 800 metres; the higher, cooler sites, influenced by the Ligurian Apennines, characterise a Dolcetto style that is often described as fresher, more acidic and better suited to ageing than wines from lower-lying areas. Characteristic features include a deep ruby-red colour, a firm tannic structure, a dry, full-bodied flavour and, often, almondy-bitter notes in the finish – characteristics that distinguish Dolcetto from Dogliani as a particularly well-structured example of its variety. Everything you need to know about Dolcetto wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Dolce

"Dolce" refers to different sugar ranges depending on the type of wine. For still wine, the sweet category begins above 45 grams of residual sugar per litre; for sparkling wine, above 50 grams. For Marsala, "dolce" applies at more than 100 grams of reducing sugars per litre.

These values belong to different legal scales and must not be confused with one another. Without knowing the type of wine, "dolce" therefore does not indicate exactly how much residual sugar a wine contains; the term refers to the sweet category within the relevant system. Everything you need to know about dessert wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Dolcetto d'Alba DOC

Dolcetto d'Alba DOC is Piedmont's leading Dolcetto appellation in terms of volume, having been recognised since 1974. The wine-growing area comprises 35 municipalities around Alba in the province of Cuneo, as well as a small part in the province of Asti (the municipality of Coazzolo). The wine is made exclusively from Dolcetto (100 per cent), traditionally grown on marly-clay soils. The zone overlaps with the Barolo, Barbaresco, Diano d'Alba and Dogliani DOCG zones; many winegrowers therefore use Dolcetto d'Alba to complement their Nebbiolo-based prestige wines.

Two categories are permitted: the standard category (at least 11.5% vol) and the Dolcetto d'Alba Superiore (at least 12.5% vol, aged for at least 12 months). Dolcetto d'Alba is characterised by a deep ruby-red to violet hue when young, fruity aromas of plum and wild berries, and a dry, almondy-nutty finish. Unlike its DOCG counterparts, such as Diano d'Alba or Dogliani, Dolcetto d'Alba is often enjoyed young and fresh; it frequently goes on sale as early as spring following the harvest. Everything you need to know about Dolcetto wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Dolcetto di Ovada Superiore DOCG

The Dolcetto di Ovada Superiore DOCG – also known as "Ovada DOCG" – is a Piedmontese appellation in the Ovadese region, in south-eastern Monferrato in the province of Alessandria. Evolving from the existing Dolcetto d'Ovada DOC (1972), it was elevated to DOCG status in 2008. It is based on the Dolcetto grape (100 per cent); the production area comprises 22 municipalities centred on Ovada, in hilly terrain up to 600 metres above sea level. The close connection between the grape variety and the region is already reflected in the historical name "Uva Ovadensis", which naturalists once used to describe Dolcetto.

The Disciplinare recognises two categories: the basic type (aged for at least 12 months) and the Riserva (aged for at least 24 months). Both may bear the designation "Vigna"; yield limits are significantly stricter than for the basic DOC 'Dolcetto d'Ovada'. Typical characteristics of Ovada include a deep ruby-red colour, a dense tannic structure and powerful, dark-fruit aromas – traits that distinguish Ovada as one of the most structured and age-worthy members of the Dolcetto family. Everything you need to know about Dolcetto wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

DOP

DOP (Denominazione di Origine Protetta) is the umbrella term under EU law for products with a protected designation of origin and the Italian equivalent of the European abbreviation PDO (Protected Designation of Origin). It applies to both wines and foodstuffs and protects the origin and the requirements set out in a product's specification against misuse by producers outside the protected area.

In the case of wine, DOP was introduced in 2010 as part of the reform of the EU's common market organisation and brings together the two national Italian classifications, DOC and DOCG, under a single European protection status; however, the Italian abbreviations remain the commercially dominant label designation. For foodstuffs, the DOP has existed since 1992 and covers a wide range of classic Italian products, including Parmigiano Reggiano, Prosciutto di Parma, Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale di Modena and numerous regional olive oils. – SUPERIORE.DE

Dosage

Dosage refers to the addition of a "dosage" to adjust the final sugar content of a sparkling wine. In traditional bottle fermentation, this takes place after disgorging. The so-called "liqueur d'expédition" may contain, amongst other things, wine, sucrose or grape must products, and simultaneously replaces the volume lost during disgorging; however, a sparkling wine does not necessarily have to receive a sugary dosage.

EU wine legislation prescribes sugar categories for sparkling wine: Brut Nature less than 3 grams per litre with no added sugar after the second fermentation, Extra Brut 0 to 6, Brut less than 12, Extra Dry 12 to 17, Dry/Secco 17 to 32, Demi-Sec 32 to 50 and Dolce over 50 grams. This scale does not apply to still wine: a dry still wine generally contains no more than 4 grams of residual sugar per litre, whilst a sparkling wine labelled as "Dry" or "Secco" may contain between 17 and 32 grams. The perceived taste also differs – due to acidity and carbonation, for example, a "Brut" with 10 grams of residual sugar may taste drier than a still wine with the same sugar content. A tolerance of 3 grams per litre applies when specifying the sugar class. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Dosaggio zero · Extra Brut · Brut · Extra Dry · Secco · Demi-Sec · Dolce

Dosaggio zero

In the context of sparkling wine, "Dosaggio zero" refers to the driest sugar category: less than 3 grams of residual sugar per litre, with no sugar added after the second fermentation. Equivalent permitted designations include, among others, Brut Nature, Pas Dosé and Dosage Zéro.

The defining feature is therefore not only the low sugar content, but also the absence of a sugar-containing dosage. A sparkling wine with less than 3 grams may, analytically, also fall within the Extra Brut category; however, only one permitted designation is used on the label. Everything you need to know about sparkling wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Drinking window

"Drinking window" refers to the period during which a wine is at its best – not a single point in time. It begins when the wine's youthful astringency has subsided and the tannins have mellowed, and ends when the fruit and structure begin to wane. For fruit-forward wines, this period practically coincides with bottling; for tannic red wines, it may not begin until years later and can then last for a long time.

How this process unfolds is also determined by storage conditions. Heat significantly accelerates the chemical processes: a bottle kept next to the cooker or in a boiler room will reach its drinking maturity in fast-forward and may well have passed its peak before it is even opened. Fluctuating temperatures cause further damage, as the wine expands and contracts with every change in temperature, allowing air to pass past the cork. Incidentally, the term says nothing about quality: even a simple wine has a drinking window; it is simply shorter. – SUPERIORE.DE

Dry

Depending on the type of wine, "dry" refers to different ranges of residual sugar. For still wine, a maximum of 4 grams of residual sugar per litre is permitted, or 9 grams if the total acidity is no more than 2 grams per litre lower than the residual sugar.

For sparkling wine, however, "dry" is an official designation for 17 to 32 grams of residual sugar per litre; synonyms include "dry", "sec", "secco" and "asciutto". A dry sparkling wine can therefore contain significantly more sugar than a dry still wine – the terms belong to different scales. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Dosage · Residual Sugar

Dry Extract

Total extract, also known as dry extract, comprises all the non-volatile components of a wine – what remains after the water and alcohol have evaporated: non-volatile acids, glycerine, colouring agents and tannins, nitrogen compounds, minerals and residual sugar. The value is expressed in grams per litre.

It is one of the most telling indicators of a wine's body. High values are usually attributable to ripe grapes, low yields and a longer maceration period; sensory characteristics include body, mouthfeel and a long finish. In dry wines, the total extract is practically identical to the sugar-free extract, as there is hardly any residual sugar present – it is only in semi-sweet and noble sweet wines that the two values diverge significantly. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Sugar-free extract

Elba Aleatico Passito DOCG

Elba Aleatico Passito DOCG – also known as "Aleatico Passito dell'Elba" – is the DOCG designation for the Tuscan island of Elba. Recognised as a DOC in 1967 and elevated to DOCG status in 2011, it requires 100 per cent Aleatico to produce this Passito sweet wine. The growing area encompasses all the municipalities on the island of Elba in the province of Livorno; the vineyards are situated between sea level and 450 metres.

A characteristic feature is the traditional drying method: after harvest, the Aleatico grapes are dried in the sun for 10 to 20 days – a typical practice in Mediterranean island viticulture. The resulting wine displays a deep ruby red colour with garnet-red highlights as it ages, an intense aroma of cherry, plum and Mediterranean spices, and a sweet, full-bodied flavour with the dark chocolate finish typical of Aleatico. Traditionally, the wine is served with the Elban dessert "schiaccia briaca". Everything you need to know about dessert wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Elegance

Elegance describes a wine that makes an impression without straining. It refers to an interplay of fine texture, clearly defined fruit and supportive, yet not dominant, acidity, coupled with restrained alcohol and fine-grained tannins. The term stands in a certain tension with concentration and intensity, without being the opposite of them: even a dense wine can appear elegant if its components are finely layered.

Elegance is a value judgement, not a measurable quantity – it cannot be determined analytically. In tasting terminology, it is often attributed to wines from cooler sites and longer growing seasons, because there acidity and aromatics are preserved without the ripeness becoming excessive. Ageing also plays a part: restrained use of oak and slow maturation enhance this impression. – SUPERIORE.DE

Erbaluce di Caluso DOCG

Erbaluce di Caluso DOCG – also known as "Caluso DOCG" – is a Piedmontese white wine appellation from the Canavese region in northern Piedmont; it has been recognised as a DOC since 1967 and was elevated to DOCG status in 2010. It is based on the indigenous Erbaluce grape variety (100 per cent), which develops its distinctive character on the sandy-gravelly moraine hills of the Canavese. The production area comprises 37 municipalities between Ivrea and Caluso.

There are four designated types: the still base wine, the Spumante produced using the Metodo Classico (aged on the lees for at least 15 months), the Passito (aged for at least 36 months) and the Passito Riserva (aged for at least 48 months). Erbaluce is characterised by a straw-yellow colour with greenish highlights, a pronounced fresh acidity and aromas of citrus, white blossom and white fruit. According to tradition, the name "Erbaluce" is derived from the Latin "Alba Lux" – although this interpretation is not documented, but it fits the pale, shimmering hue of the ripe berries, which the Savoy court jeweller Giovan Battista Croce described as far back as the 17th century. Everything you need to know about Piedmont wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Est! Est!! Est!!! di Montefiascone DOC

The Est! Est!! Est!!! di Montefiascone DOC is one of Italy's historic DOCs, recognised on 3 March 1966 alongside Vernaccia di San Gimignano, Ischia Bianco and Frascati. The wine-growing area comprises seven municipalities in the province of Viterbo on the northern shore of Lake Bolsena, with volcanic soils typical of the Distretto Vulsinico and altitudes of up to 500 metres. The blend is based on Trebbiano Toscano (Procanico) at 50–65 per cent, Trebbiano Giallo (Rossetto) at 25–40 per cent, and Malvasia Bianca Lunga and/or Malvasia del Lazio at 10–20 per cent.

The unusual name dates back to a legend from the year 1111: the servant of a German bishop is said to have written the word "Est" (Latin for "there is") on the doors whilst searching for good inns – in Montefiascone, no fewer than three times, with six exclamation marks. The Disciplinare recognises three types: the basic type (also available in Abboccato and Amabile styles), the Classico (made only from parts of Montefiascone and Bolsena) and the Spumante. Characteristic features include a straw-yellow colour, a slightly aromatic bouquet and a full-bodied flavour with an almondy, bitter finish. Everything you need to know about Lazio wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Evolution

Development refers to the changes a wine undergoes over time – from bottling until the end of its drinkability. It proceeds in phases: after an initial period where the wine often remains closed shortly after bottling, it opens up, reaches a plateau and eventually begins to decline. Chemically, this is primarily driven by slow oxidation through the closure, the reaction of tannins with one another and with colouring compounds – some of which precipitate as sediment – and the transformation of the grape's primary aromas into tertiary notes.

How long this process takes depends on acidity, tannin content, alcohol and residual sugar, as well as the closure and storage conditions. Cool, consistent temperatures and darkness slow down the development, whilst heat and temperature fluctuations accelerate it. It cannot be reliably predicted: two bottles from the same vintage can taste noticeably different after twenty years. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Evolved · Drinking window

Evolved

"Evolved" describes a wine that has moved beyond its youthful reserve: the primary fruit takes a back seat, whilst tertiary aromas such as leather, tobacco, dried fruit or undergrowth come to the fore, and the tannins and acidity appear well-integrated.

The term says nothing about the wine's zenith – an "evolved" wine may be at its peak or may already have passed it. Occasionally, it is also used to describe the state of a wine after prolonged contact with air in the glass. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Evolution

Extra Brut

In the case of sparkling wine, "Extra Brut" refers to a residual sugar content of 0 to 6 grams per litre. This range overlaps with "Brut Nature" or "Dosaggio zero" down to just under 3 grams; for this driest category, no sugar is added after the second fermentation.

If a sparkling wine meets the criteria for two designations due to its sugar content, only one of them may be used on the label. "Extra Brut" therefore describes the sugar classification, not a specific production method. Everything you need to know about sparkling wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Extra Dry

In the case of sparkling wine, "Extra Dry" refers to a residual sugar content of 12 to 17 grams per litre and is therefore sweeter than "Brut". Synonymous terms include "Extra Trocken" and "Extra Sec", amongst others.

The term has evolved historically and appears contradictory from a modern perspective: within the sparkling wine scale, "Extra Dry" does not mean any drier than "Brut". The defined sugar range is therefore decisive for classification, not the literal translation. – SUPERIORE.DE

Falanghina del Sannio DOC

Falanghina del Sannio DOC is a Campania white wine appellation from the province of Benevento, the ancient Sannio region; it has been recognised as a separate DOC since 2011, having been separated from the Sannio DOC (1997). The wine-growing region encompasses all 78 municipalities in the province of Benevento. The wine is based on the indigenous Falanghina grape variety, which must account for at least 85 per cent, supplemented by up to 15 per cent of other white grape varieties authorised in Campania.

The production regulations define four sub-zones, each with its own distinctive characteristics: Solopaca (Piana Telesina), Guardia Sanframondi or Guardiolo (central province), Taburno (limestone-rich slopes around the massif of the same name, overlapping with the Aglianico del Taburno DOCG) and Sant'Agata dei Goti. Styles range from the basic still wine through to spumante (including Metodo Classico), Vendemmia Tardiva and Passito. Falanghina is characterised by a delicate straw-yellow colour, an aromatic bouquet of citrus, white blossoms and herbs, and a dry, mineral flavour with pronounced acidity and freshness. Everything you need to know about Falanghina wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Fermentation

Fermentation refers to the conversion of glucose into alcohol and carbon dioxide by yeasts. In winemaking, the term refers to alcoholic fermentation unless otherwise specified; malolactic conversion, often called malolactic fermentation, is a different process carried out by bacteria rather than yeasts.

This process produces more than just alcohol: heat, glycerine and the secondary aromas derived from esters and higher alcohols, which give every wine its characteristic character. That is why temperature is the most important control factor. White wines are fermented at a cool temperature to preserve volatile aromas, whilst red wines are fermented at a warmer temperature, as this allows colour and tannins to be extracted more effectively from the skins. Fermentation ends when the sugar is used up, when the rising alcohol levels inhibit the yeasts – or when the winemaker deliberately interrupts it to retain residual sugar. – SUPERIORE.DE

Fiano di Avellino DOCG

Fiano di Avellino is the white wine DOCG of Irpinia, the mountainous region of Campania surrounding the provincial capital, Avellino. The DOC was recognised in 1978, followed by the DOCG in 2003. It encompasses 26 municipalities on a mix of limestone, clay and volcanic soils. The base grape variety is the indigenous Fiano, accounting for at least 85 per cent, supplemented by a maximum of 15 per cent Greco, Coda di Volpe or Trebbiano Toscano. The historical name "Apianum", which dates back to the ancient "Vitis Apiana", is permitted as a label designation.

The vineyards are situated at altitudes of up to 600 metres, with marked day-night temperature fluctuations that preserve acidity and aroma. The result is a dry white wine of a pale straw-yellow colour, with delicate aromas of white flowers, yellow fruit and a typical mineral-smoky note derived from the volcanic subsoil. Over the years, Fiano di Avellino gains depth, developing notes of honey, nuts and herbs, and is thus one of the Italian white wines with serious ageing potential. Everything you need to know about Fiano wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Filtration

Filtration refers to the removal of suspended solids so that the wine is clear when bottled and remains microbiologically stable. It can be carried out on several occasions: after pressing, after fermentation and immediately before bottling. A distinction is made between two principles. In depth filtration, the particles are trapped within the filter medium itself – this is how the widely used cellulose-based layer filter works, as does pre-coating filtration using diatomaceous earth, a flavourless rock powder that is added to the wine and forms a filtering layer. In membrane filtration, the particles are retained on the surface; a special form of this is cross-flow filtration, in which the wine flows across the membrane rather than being forced through it. Membrane cartridges with a pore size of 0.45 to 0.6 micrometres serve only as a safety measure during bottling – the clarifying must be carried out by the preceding stages.

The term "unfiltered" on the label has become more common in recent years. It implies a longer ageing process, during which the sediment settles naturally and is removed through several rackings – a gentler but more labour-intensive method. As a result, more sediment usually forms in the bottle. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Fining · Stabilisation · Racking

Fining

Fining refers to the addition of an agent that binds unwanted substances in the wine and causes them to settle to the bottom. The target substances are suspended solids, unstable proteins and excess tannins. The principle is based on opposite electrical charges: the fining agent attracts the suspended particles; both flocculate together and are subsequently separated. None of this should remain in the wine. The choice of agent depends on the objective. Mineral clays such as bentonite primarily bind proteins and are therefore used in white wine. Protein-based agents, on the other hand, bind tannins and soften tannin-rich red wines – these include egg white, isinglass from fish bladders, casein from milk and gelatine. Activated carbon acts non-specifically against off-flavours and colour, but also removes desirable components from the wine. Plant-based alternatives include pea and potato protein, as well as yeast extracts.

This raises the question of vegan status: a wine that has been fined using mineral or plant-based agents is considered vegan, whereas one treated with gelatine, egg white, isinglass or casein is not – even if no residues remain. Casein and ovalbumin must be listed on the label in the EU. With prolonged barrel ageing, fining is often unnecessary because the sediment settles naturally. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Filtration · Stabilisation

Finish

The finish refers to the length of time the aromas of a wine remain perceptible in the mouth after swallowing. The terms "length" and "finish" are also commonly used for this, as is "persistence" in technical jargon – they all mean the same thing. It is measured in seconds; in wine tasting terminology, the unit "caudalie" has become established, derived from the Latin "cauda" meaning "tail" – one caudalie corresponds to one second.

There are no fixed thresholds, and the scales in circulation contradict one another considerably: some sources consider twelve seconds sufficient even for great wines, whilst others regard twenty as good and fifty as top-class. Furthermore, the measurement depends on the taster's perception. Nevertheless, the figure serves as a useful guide because the cause is tangible: the finish arises from non-volatile components that adhere to the oral mucosa, and from aromatic compounds that travel retronasally up to the nose. – SUPERIORE.DE

Floral

"Floral" describes aromas reminiscent of flowers – acacia, elderflower and lime blossom in white wines, and violets and roses in red wines.

The aromatic compounds responsible originate predominantly from the grape itself, which is why floral notes are particularly pronounced in aromatic varieties such as Moscato, Malvasia or Nebbiolo. As the wine ages in the bottle, these notes usually recede, giving way to spicy or earthy tones. – SUPERIORE.DE

Fortification

Fortification refers to the addition of alcohol to must or wine; in Italian, the term "mutizzazione" is also used. If carried out during fermentation, the rising alcohol content can inhibit or halt yeast activity, thereby preserving natural grape sugar. Once fermentation is complete, the addition primarily increases the alcohol content.

For liqueur wines, EU wine legislation permits, depending on the product, among other things neutral alcohol of viticultural origin as well as wine distillate or dried-grape distillate. In Marsala, the addition of alcohol is part of the production process; depending on the type, must products or the so-called "sifone", must fortified with alcohol, may also be used. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Liqueur Wine · Mistelle

Frascati Superiore DOCG

Frascati Superiore is the top-tier white wine from the historic Frascati region in the Alban Hills, south-east of Rome. From the Frascati DOC, recognised in 1966 and one of the oldest in Italy, the Superiore version was spun off in 2011 as a separate DOCG, whilst the DOC remained in place for the standard version. The wine-growing region is situated in the province of Rome on the volcanic soils of the Colli Albani and encompasses the municipalities of Frascati, Grottaferrata and Monte Porzio Catone, as well as parts of Rome and Montecompatri. The base grape varieties are Malvasia bianca di Candia and Malvasia del Lazio, comprising at least 70 per cent, supplemented by up to 30 per cent Trebbiano, Greco, Bellone or Bombino bianco.

DOCG status imposes stricter requirements: lower yields, greater ripeness and a minimum alcohol content of 12 per cent (13 per cent for the Riserva). The Riserva is aged for at least twelve months, three of which are spent in the bottle. On the volcanic soils of the Colli Albani, Malvasia displays its full aromatic range: a straw-yellow colour, a bouquet of white flowers and yellow fruit with a typically delicate hint of almond, and a soft, juicy texture on the palate. This is how the DOCG gives this Roman classic its mature character. Everything you need to know about Lazio wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Free-Run Juice Draining

See "Bleeding (Saignée)".

Freshness

Freshness describes the impression of vibrancy and liveliness created primarily by a wine's acidity. It is not an aroma, but rather an effect: the wine appears clearly defined, the palate remains agile, and each sip invites the next. In addition to acidity, a low pH value, moderate alcohol content and dissolved carbon dioxide contribute to this – the latter of which is also present in small quantities in still wines.

Freshness is therefore less a question of youth than of structure. A twenty-year-old wine can appear fresh if its acidity has been preserved, whilst a young wine made from overripe grapes may seem ponderous. In the vineyard, the timing of the harvest is the key factor, as acidity decreases as the grapes ripen. – SUPERIORE.DE

Friuli Colli Orientali DOC

The Friuli Colli Orientali DOC – historically also known as "Colli Orientali del Friuli" – is a Friulian wine appellation in the eastern province of Udine, on the border with Slovenia. It comprises 19 municipalities around Cividale del Friuli (known as Forum Julii in the Roman Empire), one of the largest wine-growing regions in Friuli in terms of area. The soils consist of "Flysch di Cormòns" – known as "Ponca" in the Friulian dialect – an alternating layer of marl and sandstone, whose susceptibility to erosion made terraced viticulture necessary.

A wide range of grape varieties is permitted: for white wines, these include Friulano, Ribolla Gialla, Pinot Grigio, Pinot Bianco, Chardonnay, Sauvignon, Verduzzo Friulano, Riesling Renano and Malvasia Istriana; for reds: Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Nero, as well as the indigenous Refosco, Pignolo, Schioppettino and Tazzelenghe. Unlike in the Collio, red and sweet wines play a greater role here – it is therefore fitting that the three DOCGs, Ramandolo, Colli Orientali del Friuli Picolit and Rosazzo, were separated from the DOC area. Stylistically, the white wines typically exhibit a mineral, salty freshness with good ageing potential, whilst the indigenous red wines display spicy, herbaceous aromas and pronounced tannins. Everything you need to know about Friuli wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Frizzante

Frizzante is a distinct EU wine category situated between still wine and sparkling wine, characterised by a low but perceptible level of carbon dioxide pressure. The legal basis for this is EU Regulation 1308/2013, Annex VII, Part II, No. 8. The pressure must be between 1 and 2.5 bar at 20°C, significantly below the 3.5-bar limit for quality sparkling wine. The total alcohol content is at least 9% vol; the carbon dioxide may originate from either natural fermentation or a controlled secondary fermentation.

Frizzante is usually produced using the Metodo Martinotti-Charmat, with a shorter ageing period than for Spumante; in a few cases, it is also produced using the Metodo Ancestrale with bottle fermentation. Sensory-wise, this results in a finer, less persistent perlage than that of sparkling wine. Among the best-known Italian frizzanti are the Lambrusco appellations of Emilia-Romagna, Prosecco Frizzante DOC, Bonarda dell'Oltrepò Pavese and Moscato d'Asti DOCG. Due to the lower pressure, frizzanti do not need to be bottled with mushroom corks and agraffes; instead, the traditional "tappo raso" with a cord fastening or a screw cap is commonly used, whilst crown caps are less common. Everything you need to know about sparkling wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Fruit

"Fruit" refers to the totality of aromas reminiscent of fresh, cooked or dried fruit – ranging from citrus and apple, through stone fruit and red berries, to prunes and figs. It is the most prominent part of the flavour profile and originates partly from the grape itself and partly from the yeasts during fermentation.

Technically, a distinction is made between primary, secondary and tertiary aromas: primary aromas are inherent to the grape variety; secondary aromas develop during fermentation and ageing; and tertiary aromas develop during bottle ageing. Fruit aromas predominantly belong to the first group and recede over the years, whilst spicy and earthy notes come to the fore. Their intensity depends on the grape variety, degree of ripeness and climate – cooler sites tend to produce lighter, more acid-driven fruit notes, whilst warmer ones tend to yield darker, compote-like ones. – SUPERIORE.DE

Gallo Nero

Gallo Nero (Italian for "black rooster") is the historic emblem of Chianti Classico and is now the registered trademark of the Consorzio Vino Chianti Classico. The symbol dates back to the coat of arms of the Lega del Chianti, the political and military alliance founded in 1384 by the Repubblica del Marzocco (Florence) as an anti-Sienese force, which brought the three Chianti municipalities of Castellina, Gaiole and Radda under a single administration.

According to legend, a cockcrow race decided the border between Florence and Siena: both cities sent out a knight each as soon as the cock at their respective palaces crowed, and the border was drawn where the knights met. Florence chose a black cockerel and starved it; it crowed well before Siena's well-fed white cockerel, and the Florentine knight set off earlier and covered the greater distance. Thus, the majority of today's Chianti Classico zone came under Florentine control. Today, the black cockerel in a red ring adorns the neck label of every Chianti Classico DOCG bottle, certifying its origin from the historic core area between Florence and Siena. Everything you need to know about Chianti wines and the top-tier Chianti Classico Gran Selezione category. – SUPERIORE.DE

Gattinara DOCG

Gattinara is a small, historically significant red wine DOCG in Alto Piemonte, at the foot of Monte Rosa in the far north-east of the region. The growing area is confined to the single municipality of Gattinara in the province of Vercelli, with vineyards situated between 250 and 550 metres above sea level on porphyritic volcanic soils. The wine is made predominantly from Nebbiolo, accounting for 90 to 100 per cent – known locally as "Spanna" – supplemented by a maximum of 10 per cent Vespolina and/or Uva Rara (Bonarda di Gattinara). Recognised as a DOC in 1967, Gattinara was elevated to DOCG status in 1990.

On the mineral-rich volcanic soils, Spanna develops its own distinctive character: a pale garnet colour with orange hues when ripe, a delicate nose of roses, violets, red fruits and spices, accompanied by a typical bitter note on the palate. The ageing requirements are among the strictest for Nebbiolo in Italy: 35 months for the standard wine, 24 of which are in wood; 47 months for the Riserva, 36 of which are in wood. As a result, the Nebbiolo here reveals a different side to that found in Barolo or Barbaresco: leaner, more mineral, with exceptionally long ageing potential. Everything you need to know about Nebbiolo wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Ghemme DOCG

Ghemme DOCG is a small but iconic Piedmontese appellation from the Alto Piemonte region in the province of Novara, which was elevated to DOCG status in 1997. The growing area comprises only the village of Ghemme and parts of Romagnano Sesia – one of Italy's smallest DOCGs. The wine is based on Nebbiolo (known locally as "Spanna"), accounting for at least 85 per cent, supplemented by up to 15 per cent Vespolina and/or Uva Rara (Bonarda Novarese) on sandy-clay-gravelly moraine soils at altitudes between 220 and 400 metres.

The designation is divided into two categories: the standard wine (aged for at least 34 months, of which at least 18 months in wood, with a minimum alcohol content of 12% vol) and the Riserva (aged for at least 46 months, of which 24 months in wood, with a minimum alcohol content of 12.5% vol). Both may bear the designation "Vigna". Characteristic features of Ghemme include a ruby-red colour with garnet-red hues as it ages, an ethereal bouquet of violets, red fruits and spices, and a dry, acid-driven flavour with an almondy, bitter finish – characteristics that position Ghemme as a distinct northern expression of Nebbiolo alongside Gattinara and Barolo. Everything you need to know about Nebbiolo wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Governo all'uso toscano

Governo all'uso toscano is a traditional Tuscan winemaking technique in which a young wine that has already fermented is slowly induced to ferment again by adding lightly dried grapes or material derived from them. The method predates the modern Chianti system and became closely associated in the 19th century with Bettino Ricasoli's work on the Chianti style. His experiments and writings helped to systematise grape selection and winemaking for Chianti, but the historical development cannot be reduced to a single date or a rigid recipe.

The current Chianti DOCG production rules describe Governo as a slow refermentation of freshly racked wine with lightly dried grapes of the permitted varieties. The additional fermentation can make the wine appear rounder, more fruit-driven and approachable earlier, although the precise effect depends on the grapes, degree of drying, quantity used and course of fermentation. Governo is used far less frequently today than in the past, but it remains a traditional oenological practice linked to the history of Chianti. – SUPERIORE.DE

Gran Selezione

→ See Chianti Classico Gran Selezione DOCG

Grappa

Grappa is Italy's classic pomace spirit and has been protected as a geographical indication at EU level since 1989: only spirits distilled from Italian pomace in Italian distilleries may bear this name. The minimum alcohol content is 37.5% vol; the market standard is 40%, whilst high-quality grappas often range from 43 to 50%. Traditional batch distillation in a water bath or using direct steam preserves the aromas of the pomace most gently; continuous column distillation is regarded as a more efficient, industrial method.

Grappa can be categorised according to several criteria. In terms of the base grape pomace, the spectrum ranges from the classic blend of various pomace to single-varietal "monovitigno" grappa, a category established in 1973 by the Friulian distillery Nonino. In terms of ageing, a distinction is made between crystal-clear grappa with no contact with wood, "affinata" with a few months' cask ageing, "invecchiata" with at least twelve months' ageing in wood, and "stravecchia" with at least eighteen months' ageing. In terms of character: pure, flavoured or infused with herbs and berries. The spectrum thus ranges from crystal-clear, single-varietal digestifs to amber-coloured barrique reserves. Everything you need to know about grappa. – SUPERIORE.DE

Green

In wine tasting, "green" refers to impressions arising from incomplete ripeness – and encompasses three distinct aspects. Green aromas reminiscent of peppers, grass or asparagus stem from methoxypyrazines, which only break down when exposed to light. Green acidity arises when too much malic acid remains: it is respired off during ripening, particularly on warm nights, and comes across as sharp rather than fresh as long as it predominates. Green tannins come from unripe seeds, which only lignify late in the process and change colour from green to brown in the process; they taste harsh and bitter rather than grainy.

It is crucial to distinguish between sugar ripeness and phenolic ripeness, which do not necessarily coincide: in warm years, the berries reach high must weights before the pips and skins are fully ripe. The winegrower therefore does not rely solely on analytical values, but also bites into the pips and skins. In the cellar, green acidity can be softened through malolactic fermentation, in which malic acid is converted into the milder lactic acid; green aromas and green tannins, however, remain in the wine. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Herbaceous

Herbaceous

"Grassy" describes green, herbaceous aromas reminiscent of freshly cut grass, green peppers, asparagus or stinging nettles. These are attributable to two different groups of compounds. The pepper note is attributable to methoxypyrazines, which occur naturally in Sauvignon Blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Merlot and Carmenère; the note of freshly cut grass, on the other hand, stems predominantly from compounds produced when leaves and stems are damaged. Methoxypyrazines accumulate in the berry skins, seeds and stems between fruit set and veraison, and are subsequently broken down when exposed to light – shaded grapes retain significantly more of these compounds than sun-exposed ones. The concentration can therefore be controlled through canopy management and the timing of the harvest.

Whether this impression is characteristic of the variety or indicates incomplete ripeness depends on the wine: in Sauvignon Blanc it is part of the profile, whilst in a full-bodied red wine it is usually interpreted as a flaw. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Green

Hyperoxygenation

Hyperoxygenation refers to the deliberate saturation of white must with oxygen prior to fermentation. This may seem counterintuitive, as oxygen is otherwise regarded as the enemy of white wine – but the mechanism is based on a difference between must and wine. In must, oxidation occurs enzymatically, triggered by polyphenol oxidases naturally present in the grapes. The resulting intermediate products combine to form larger molecules that no longer dissolve and flocculate. This is precisely the aim of the process: the oxidation-sensitive phenols are converted in advance and can subsequently be separated.

The browned must is therefore stripped of the flocculated phenols during pre-clarification – once filtered, it regains its normal greenish-yellow colour. What has been removed in this process is no longer available to the finished wine as a target for oxygen attack: it ages more slowly and browns less. To ensure the oxidases can work, sulphur must not be added beforehand. The process does not work equally well for all grape varieties – a gain in quality has been documented for Chardonnay, whilst for varieties whose musts are already largely oxidised after pressing, it makes no difference. – SUPERIORE.DE

IGP

IGP (Indicazione Geografica Protetta) is the umbrella term under EU law for products with a protected geographical indication and the Italian equivalent of the European abbreviation PGI (Protected Geographical Indication). It applies to both wines and foodstuffs and differs from DOP in that it imposes fewer restrictions: Whilst under DOP all stages of production and processing must take place within the geographical area, IGP merely requires that 85 per cent of the grapes originate from the area in question and that the wine is produced there.

For wine, IGP was introduced in 2010 as part of the reform of the EU's common market organisation and corresponds to the national Italian classification IGT at European level; the Italian abbreviation IGT continues to dominate on labels. For food products, IGP has existed since 1992 and covers a wide range of Italian classics, including Mortadella Bologna, Bresaola della Valtellina, Radicchio Rosso di Treviso, Limone di Sorrento, Nocciola del Piemonte, the protected aromatised wine Vermouth di Torino, and numerous regional olive oils. – SUPERIORE.DE

IGT

IGT (Indicazione Geografica Tipica) is the third tier in the Italian wine classification system, below DOC and DOCG and above the current "Vino" category (formerly: "Vino da Tavola"). It was introduced in 1992 by the Legge Goria (Law No. 164) to cover wines with a clear geographical origin but with more flexible requirements regarding grape varieties and cultivation methods. IGT wines must source at least 85 per cent of their grapes from the specified area; the rules on permitted varieties, yields and vinification are significantly less stringent than for DOC or DOCG.

Historical examples of the need for more flexible categories of origin were the Super Tuscans of the 1970s and 1980s – Tuscan wines of the highest quality that used Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot or other international grape varieties outside the DOC specifications and which, as a result, could only be bottled as Vino da Tavola until 1992. Icons such as Sassicaia, Tignanello and Ornellaia found an appropriate legal framework within the IGT system; Sassicaia was later even granted its own DOC category. Italy currently has over 100 IGT zones, with Toscana IGT being the best known internationally. Since 2010, IGT wines have been classified under EU law as IGP (Indicazione Geografica Protetta). See also: IGP. – SUPERIORE.DE

Imbottigliato all'origine

"Imbottigliato all'origine" is a protected label designation for Italian DOP and IGP wines, indicating a close link between production and bottling. The legal basis for this is EU Delegated Regulation 2019/33 on the labelling of wine products and the Italian Ministerial Decree of 23 December 2009. Merely bottling the wine within the protected area or its immediate vicinity is not sufficient for this claim; what is decisive is the legally defined link between the producer or production facility and the bottling.

The statement thus documents a close geographical and production-related link between grape production, vinification and bottling, without itself constituting a legally defined proof of quality. A stricter variant is the designation "integralmente prodotto": this may only be used if the grapes originate exclusively from the estate's own vineyard and have been vinified on the same estate. – SUPERIORE.DE

Inert gas

"Inert gas" is a chemical term referring to a gas that does not react with other substances under the given conditions. In the cellar, this applies to nitrogen and argon.

It is not the same as a "protective gas", a term which refers to the function of displacing the oxygen above the surface of the wine. Carbon dioxide also fulfils this function and is therefore considered a protective gas, but it is not an inert gas – it dissolves in the wine and can affect the mouthfeel. Every inert gas used in the cellar is therefore a protective gas, but not every protective gas is an inert gas. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Protective gas · Reductive

Juiciness

Juiciness describes the sensation of a mouth-watering quality: the wine stimulates the flow of saliva rather than drying out the mouth. Physiologically, this is down to the acidity – it triggers a salivary response and thus counteracts the astringent effect of the tannins.

Juiciness is perceived as the interplay between ripe fruit and lively acidity; if either is missing, the wine comes across as either harsh and dry or sweet and heavy. – SUPERIORE.DE

Langhe DOC

The Langhe DOC is a Piedmontese appellation recognised in 1994 that is of great strategic importance: it serves as an umbrella designation for the numerous smaller DOCs and DOCGs of the Langhe region around Alba in the province of Cuneo. The name "Langhe" derives from the long, stretching ridges that give the area its distinctive topography – the very same hills on which Barolo, Barbaresco, Dolcetto and Barbera thrive. The wine-growing region stretches across numerous municipalities between the rivers Tanaro, Belbo and Bormida, with a variety of soils comprising marl, limestone, sand and clay, which allows for an unusually wide range of grape varieties.

The production regulations permit both blended cuvées (Langhe Rosso, Langhe Bianco) as well as single-varietal wines containing at least 85 per cent of one of the authorised grape varieties – including Arneis, Barbera, Chardonnay, Dolcetto, Favorita, Freisa, Nascetta, Nebbiolo, Pinot Nero, Riesling and Sauvignon. In addition, there are Langhe Rosso Passito (made from Barbera, Dolcetto or Nebbiolo) and Langhe Bianco Passito. In practice, the DOC plays a dual role: as a home for indigenous niche grape varieties such as Nascetta and Favorita, and as an alternative for producers who deliberately choose not to market wines from Barolo or Barbaresco vineyards under the DOCG designation. Langhe Nebbiolo bears the stylistic hallmarks of the great Nebbiolo wines but is more approachable at an earlier stage – for many, it is the gateway to the world of Nebbiolo. Everything you need to know about Piedmont wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Large Barrel

Large wooden casks are defined as those with a capacity of around 1,000 litres or more; in the Italian tradition, these are known as "botti". Common sizes range from 2,500 to 5,000 litres, whilst the largest examples hold many times that amount. Slavonian and French oak are used, and in Tuscany, chestnut is also used in some cases. Because the staves are five to seven centimetres thick, they cannot be bent over a fire – they are shaped using steam, and are either not toasted at all or only lightly.

This is precisely the point. The ratio of wood surface area to volume of wine is low, so the supply of oxygen is correspondingly slow, and the wood imparts hardly any aroma. Over time, old barrels develop a layer of tartar on the inside, which renders them virtually inert – a quality particularly prized by traditional producers. A large barrel can last for decades because the inside can be planed down and individual staves replaced. Barolo, Barbaresco, Brunello and Amarone are traditionally aged in such casks. – SUPERIORE.DE

Length

→ See Finish

Liqueur Wine

Liqueur wine is a separate category under EU wine legislation. The actual alcohol content is generally between 15 and 22 per cent by volume, with a minimum total alcohol content of 17.5 per cent by volume; the raw material must, as a rule, have a natural alcohol content of at least 12 per cent by volume. Exceptions apply to certain protected liqueur wines.

Liqueur wine is produced from fermenting must, wine or a combination of the two, to which – depending on the product – neutral alcohol of viticultural origin or wine or dry grape distillate, amongst other things, is added; certain must products may also be permitted. Marsala is the best-known Italian example of this category. Everything you need to know about Distillates +. – SUPERIORE.DE

Lison (interreg. VEN/FRI) DOCG

Lison DOCG is an interregional designation, recognised since 2010 on the basis of the existing Lison-Pramaggiore DOC. The wine-growing area spans the border between Veneto and Friuli-Venezia Giulia: the provinces of Venice and Treviso in the west, and Pordenone in the east, situated on the plain between the rivers Livenza and Tagliamento, just a few kilometres from the Adriatic coast. The wine is based on the Tai (Venetian name) or Friulano (Friulian name) grape variety, which must account for at least 85 per cent – both are modern names for the former Tocai Friulano grape.

The Disciplinare recognises two types: the standard type and the Classico (from the historically oldest area). Typical characteristics of Lison include a straw-yellow colour with greenish to golden highlights, a herbaceous, aromatic bouquet of white blossom, white fruit and almond blossom, as well as a dry flavour with pronounced freshness – typical characteristics of the Tai/Friulano grown in the flat coastal climate with marked day-night temperature differences. The name dates back to the ancient Roman village of Lison in the Portogruaro area. Everything you need to know about Veneto wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Lively

"Lively" describes a wine that shows movement on the palate rather than appearing one-dimensional. This impression stems primarily from the acidity, often enhanced by dissolved carbon dioxide, which remains in small quantities even in still wines and causes a slight tingling sensation on the tongue.

Unlike "freshness", which describes a state, "lively" refers to the progression: the wine continues to develop in the mouth rather than remaining static at a single impression. – SUPERIORE.DE

Maceration

The maceration period is the length of time during which the must and solid components remain in contact. It is the most important factor in extraction – and it distinguishes red wine from rosé and white wine from orange wine: the same grapes yield a different product depending on the duration of maceration.

The components do not dissolve at the same time. Pigments are water-soluble and pass into the must early on; tannins take longer and dissolve more effectively once alcohol has formed. Therefore, a short maceration time primarily affects the colour, whilst a long one affects the structure. It can take place before fermentation – in which case it is known as cold maceration – or it can occur during fermentation or be extended beyond it. The appropriate duration depends on the grape variety, the degree of ripeness and the desired style. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Crushing · Cold Maceration

Malolactic Fermentation

Malolactic fermentation, also known as biological deacidification, is a bacterial conversion in which sharper-tasting malic acid is transformed into softer lactic acid and carbon dioxide. It usually takes place after alcoholic fermentation, but with co-inoculation of suitable lactic acid bacteria it can begin while alcoholic fermentation is still in progress. Oenococcus oeni is frequently responsible, although other lactic acid bacteria may also be involved depending on the wine and method. The process may start spontaneously or be initiated deliberately with selected cultures.

Sensory acidity becomes less sharp and the wine may seem rounder and softer. Diacetyl can be formed as a by-product and, depending on its concentration, may contribute buttery or nutty notes, although these are by no means always clearly perceptible. Malolactic fermentation is common in the ageing of many dry red wines; in white wines it is carried out, limited or deliberately prevented according to the desired style. Completing the process also helps prevent an unwanted malolactic fermentation from starting later in the bottle. – SUPERIORE.DE

Malvasia delle Lipari DOC

Malvasia delle Lipari DOC is a Sicilian wine appellation from the volcanic archipelago of the Isole Eolie (Aeolian Islands) in the province of Messina, recognised since 1973. It is based on Malvasia di Lipari (at least 95 per cent), supplemented by up to 5 per cent Corinto Nero – a rare red grape variety with Greek origins. The growing area encompasses all seven islands of the archipelago, although wine production is concentrated on Salina.

The regulations provide for three types: the still "Naturale", the "Passito" (at least 18% vol total alcohol, aged for at least 6 months) and the "Liquoroso" (at least 20% vol, fortified). A distinctive feature of the Passito is the traditional sun-drying on bamboo mats ("canizzi") for 10 to 20 days – a typical practice in Mediterranean island viticulture. The resulting wine has an amber-yellow colour, an intense aroma of apricot, honey, citrus fruits and Mediterranean herbs, and a sweet, velvety flavour with a long finish – it was already traded in the Middle Ages as one of Italy's most sought-after sweet wines. Everything you need to know about Malvasia wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Maremma Toscana DOC

The Maremma Toscana DOC is a relatively recent but strategically important Tuscan appellation, recognised as a DOC since 2011 (previously an IGT). The wine-growing region encompasses the entire province of Grosseto in southern Tuscany, making the DOC unusually versatile: the production regulations are broad in scope and permit both indigenous and international grape varieties – a reflection of the Maremma's keen spirit of experimentation.

For white wines, the cuvée must contain at least 60 per cent Vermentino, Trebbiano Toscano and/or Viognier; for red wines, at least 60 per cent Sangiovese, Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah and/or Ciliegiolo, either individually or in combination. Single-varietal wines are permitted for numerous grape varieties, including Vermentino, Sangiovese, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, Ciliegiolo, Petit Verdot and Pugnitello. The range is complemented by Vin Santo, Passito and bivarietal wines, which are permitted to list two grape varieties on the label. The Maremma is characterised by its proximity to the Mediterranean, a warm climate with sea breezes and varied soil profiles – characteristics that typically lend the wines ripe fruit, Mediterranean spice and a soft tannin structure. Everything you need to know about Maremma wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Medium dry

Depending on the type of wine, "medium dry" refers to different sugar ranges. For still wine, a maximum of 12 grams of residual sugar per litre is permitted, or 18 grams if the total acidity is no more than 10 grams per litre lower than the residual sugar.

For sparkling wine, however, "medium dry" refers to 32 to 50 grams per litre; equivalent terms include "demi-sec" and "abboccato". As with "dry", the designation therefore has a precise meaning only within the respective type of wine. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Abboccato · Demi-Sec · Dry · Residual Sugar

Menzione Geografica Aggiuntiva

Menzione Geografica Aggiuntiva (MGA) is the officially defined additional geographical indication within a designation of origin; its scope and function are set out in the relevant Disciplinare. It allows producers to include the name of a geographical unit defined in the relevant Disciplinare on the label alongside the designation of origin. The Italian term can be translated as "additional geographical mention".

The system was codified primarily for the Piedmontese Nebbiolo DOCGs: Barbaresco introduced its cru vineyards in 2007, and Barolo in 2010 – a milestone that brought decades of debate over single-vineyard designations to an end. Today, Barolo comprises around 180 MGAs, of which around 170 are cru vineyards such as Cannubi, Brunate, Rocche di Castiglione and Ginestra, as well as eleven municipal MGAs. Barbaresco lists around 65 MGAs, including Asili, Rabajà and Martinenga. The ENOGEA maps by the Italian wine cartographer Alessandro Masnaghetti are regarded as the standard cartographic reference. MGAs are not a quality classification, but rather a geographical specification: they indicate a more precisely defined origin within the denomination and thus highlight the in-depth terroir approach of the Italian Nebbiolo world. – SUPERIORE.DE

Metodo Ancestrale

In modern usage, "Metodo Ancestrale" refers to a process in which must or wine that is still fermenting is bottled, and the alcoholic fermentation is allowed to complete inside the bottle. The resulting carbon dioxide remains in the sealed bottle and creates the perlage; a separate secondary fermentation, as with the Metodo Classico, is not necessarily required.

However, the term is not defined as uniformly in legal terms as the Metodo Classico. Depending on the producer, the addition of yeast, residual sugar, pressure, filtration and disgorging may be handled differently. The yeasts often remain in the bottle; internationally, the term "Pét-Nat" is frequently used for related styles. The Italian "col fondo" is similar to this process, but is not automatically the same. Everything you need to know about sparkling wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Metodo Classico

"Metodo Classico" refers to the traditional method of producing sparkling wine involving a second fermentation in the bottle, named after the Champagne method. The "liqueur de tirage", made from sugar and yeast, is added to the still base wine; after bottling, the second fermentation produces carbon dioxide, which remains trapped as fine perlage. This is followed by ageing on the lees for several months to several years, then remuage (the gradual tilting of the bottle to dislodge the lees) and finally dégorgement, followed by dosage. Within the EU, the French term "méthode champenoise" is reserved for Champagne; "Metodo Classico" is the Italian technical term.

Among the most significant Italian appellations are Franciacorta DOCG in Lombardy (a pioneer since 1961, with a minimum of 18 months' ageing on the lees, Riserva 60), Trento DOC in Trentino (at least 15 months), Alta Langa DOCG in Piedmont (only Chardonnay and Pinot Nero grown at altitudes above 250 metres) and Oltrepò Pavese Metodo Classico DOCG. On the palate, these wines share a fine, long-lasting effervescence and aromas of citrus, white flowers, baker's yeast and brioche, which develop into toasty, nutty notes as they age. Everything you need to know about sparkling wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Metodo Martinotti

The Martinotti method (also known as the Martinotti-Charmat or Charmat method) refers to the production of sparkling wine involving a second fermentation in a stainless-steel pressure tank, known as an autoclave. The process was invented in 1895 by the Piedmontese oenologist Federico Martinotti, director of the Regia Stazione Enologica in Asti; around 1910, the Frenchman Eugène Charmat further developed the system for industrial use, which is where the double name originates. Unlike the Metodo Classico, the second fermentation does not take place in individual bottles, but in large pressure tanks; after clarification, the wine is bottled under isobaric conditions.

The process typically takes 30 to 80 days (Charmat corto); in the longer variant (Charmat lungo), developed in 1970, it takes 9 to 15 months with more intensive contact with the yeast. Because it preserves the primary aromas of the grapes, the method is considered ideal for aromatic varieties and forms the basis of the best-known Italian sparkling wines: Prosecco DOC and DOCG made from Glera (Veneto and Friuli), Asti Spumante DOCG made from Moscato Bianco in Piedmont, as well as the various Lambrusco appellations of Emilia-Romagna. On the palate, fresh fruit, floral aromas and a lively, delicate perlage dominate. Everything you need to know about sparkling wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

MGA

→ See Menzione Geografica Aggiuntiva

Micro-Oxygenation

Micro-oxygenation refers to the controlled introduction of very small amounts of oxygen, usually via a fine-pored diffuser in the tank. The process mimics what happens naturally in a wooden cask: a slow, even influx of oxygen that allows tannins to polymerise and stabilises the colour.

The effect can only be controlled to a limited extent. It depends on the ratio between tannins and colouring compounds – both must be present in sufficient quantities and in balance for harsh tannins to be converted into softer ones. If there is too little tannin, oxidation predominates and the wine turns brown; if the anthocyanin content is disproportionately high, the process has no effect. Fine lees, sulphurous acid, and the duration and intensity of the dosing also influence the result. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Oxidative · Barrel · Tannin

Millesimato

"Millesimato" is a label designation for Italian sparkling wines in which at least 85 per cent of the grapes come from the specified vintage; the harvest year must be stated on the label. The term derives from the French word "millésime". Unlike a pure vintage sparkling wine, the "Millesimato" designation says nothing about any possible blending with older reserve wines, provided the 85 per cent threshold is maintained.

For bottle-fermented sparkling wines, the "Millesimato" classification sets the wine apart from the standard range: Franciacorta DOCG requires at least 30 months' ageing on the lees for "Millesimato", compared with 18 months for the standard version, whilst Trento DOC requires at least 24 months. The "Millesimato" designation may also be used for sparkling wines produced using the tank method, such as Prosecco, provided the prescribed vintage proportion of at least 85 per cent is maintained. Everything you need to know about sparkling wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Minerality

Minerality is one of the most frequently used yet least clearly defined terms in the language of wine. It usually refers to an impression of flint, wet chalk, salt or smoke, often associated with a cool, crisp sensation on the palate. There is no authoritative oenological definition, and the widespread notion that minerals from the soil are transferred unchanged into the wine cannot be scientifically substantiated.

As a descriptive term, however, it remains useful because it identifies a recognisable style: Wines with high acidity, a low pH value, restrained fruit and often reductive ageing are regularly characterised in this way. The term is often applied to wines from volcanic soils as well as from limestone and schist formations – although the contributions of soil, climate and winemaking to the final result are almost impossible to separate. – SUPERIORE.DE

Minimum Alcohol Content

The minimum alcohol content specifies the actual alcohol content a product must have in order to be marketed as a wine of a particular category. Under EU law, the minimum limits vary depending on the wine-growing zone; for Italy, which is predominantly in Zone C, wine must generally have an actual alcohol content of at least 9% vol. Exceptions apply to aromatic sparkling wines with high residual sugar: Moscato d'Asti DOCG requires an actual alcohol content of around 4.5 to 6.5% vol, as its residual sugar is counted as potential alcohol in the total alcohol content relevant under wine legislation. Separate labelling rules apply to deal-alcoholised and partially deal-alcoholised wines; fully deal-alcoholised wine has a maximum of 0.5% vol.

For DOP and IGP wines, each "Disciplinare" specifies its own minimum alcohol content, usually well above the EU limit. Well-known requirements include 11.5% for Chianti DOCG, 12% for Chianti Classico DOCG, 13% for Barolo DOCG and 13.5% for Amarone della Valpolicella DOCG. The actual alcohol content must be stated on the label as a percentage by volume (% vol), measured at 20°C. – SUPERIORE.DE

Mistelle

Mistelle, known in Italian as "mistella", refers to a sweet product based on grape must, in which alcoholic fermentation is prevented or stopped early by the addition of alcohol. As a result, the natural grape sugar is largely preserved. Mistelle is not the same as a finished liqueur wine, but may be used as a component in its production.

For Marsala, the current Disciplinare uses the term "sifone" for must to which alcohol of viticultural origin and/or wine spirit has been added. Sifone may be used depending on the type of Marsala; in Marsala Vergine, however, it is excluded, as are concentrated must and cooked must. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Liqueur Wine · Fortification · Must

Montecucco Sangiovese DOCG

Montecucco Sangiovese DOCG is a relatively new Tuscan appellation situated on the western slopes of Monte Amiata, which was elevated to DOCG status in 2011 (having been a DOC since 1998). The wine-growing area comprises seven municipalities in the southern part of the province of Grosseto – Cinigiano, Civitella Paganico, Campagnatico, Castel del Piano, Roccalbegna, Arcidosso and Seggiano – at altitudes ranging from 150 to 400 metres. The wine is based on Sangiovese grapes, accounting for at least 90 per cent of the blend, supplemented by up to 10 per cent of other red grape varieties authorised in Tuscany. The vineyards benefit from a distinctive terroir: the extinct volcano Monte Amiata introduces volcanic material into the otherwise heterogeneous soils in parts of the region, whilst fresh winds from the sea and the mountains create marked temperature variations.

The Disciplinare recognises two categories: the standard wine (aged for at least 12 months in wood and 4 months in the bottle) and the Riserva (aged for a total of at least 30 months, of which 24 months are in wood and 6 months in the bottle). Characteristic features of Sangiovese from Montecucco include an intense ruby-red colour, a fruity bouquet with notes of red berries and spicy accents, and a mineral, full-bodied structure – characteristics that position Montecucco Sangiovese as a distinct style alongside Brunello di Montalcino, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano and Chianti Classico. Everything you need to know about Maremma wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Montefalco Sagrantino DOCG

Montefalco Sagrantino is Umbria's most famous DOCG red wine, named after the medieval town of Montefalco in the province of Perugia. In addition to Montefalco, the region encompasses parts of the neighbouring municipalities of Bevagna, Gualdo Cattaneo, Castel Ritaldi and Giano dell'Umbria. Recognised as a DOC in 1979 (as part of the Montefalco DOC), the Sagrantino designation was elevated to an independent DOCG in 1992. It is based exclusively on the Sagrantino grape, an indigenous variety with extremely high tannin content that is grown almost exclusively here; since 2002, the name "Sagrantino" has been legally reserved for the DOCG.

What is now primarily known as a powerful dry wine was originally produced as a passito for religious occasions; the dry version only became a distinct wine style from the 1970s onwards. Both types require at least 33 months' ageing, with the dry variant spending 12 months in wood followed by a further four months in the bottle. Colour and aroma are typical of the variety: an intense ruby red with violet highlights, turning garnet red with age, and a characteristic blackberry nose. Added to this are expressive, concentrated tannins, which make Sagrantino a red wine with an ageing potential of two decades or more. Everything you need to know about Umbrian wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Montello Rosso DOCG

Montello Rosso DOCG – also known as "Montello" or "Rosso del Montello" – is a Venetian wine appellation in the province of Treviso, which was elevated to DOCG status in 2011. The wine-growing region encompasses the hills of Montello and the Colli Asolani in the Pre-Alps of the province of Treviso. It is based on a Bordeaux blend: Cabernet Sauvignon (40–70 per cent), supplemented by Merlot and/or Cabernet Franc and/or Carmenère (30–60 per cent), as well as up to 15 per cent of other red grape varieties authorised in Treviso.

Two types are permitted: the standard type (at least 12.5% vol) and the Superiore (at least 13% vol, aged for at least 18 months). Typical characteristics of Montello Rosso include an intense ruby-red colour that deepens to garnet with age, a complex bouquet of dark forest fruits, spices and aromatic notes from barrel ageing, and a dry, robust flavour with a long finish. The combination of Alpine coolness and Venetian warmth gives rise to a distinctive Bordeaux-style wine that sets this appellation apart from other Venetian Cabernet blends. Everything you need to know about Veneto wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Montepulciano d'Abruzzo DOC

The Montepulciano d'Abruzzo DOC is a defining feature of red wine production in Abruzzo and is one of Italy's highest-volume red wine DOCs, having been recognised since 1968. The production area encompasses all four provinces of Abruzzo – Chieti, L'Aquila, Pescara and Teramo – with vineyards at altitudes of up to 600 metres, and on south-facing slopes up to 700 metres. The wine is based on the indigenous Montepulciano grape, which must account for at least 85 per cent, supplemented by up to 15 per cent of other red grape varieties authorised in Abruzzo (not to be confused with the Tuscan Vino Nobile di Montepulciano, which is based on Sangiovese).

The Disciplinare specifies the basic wine and the Riserva (aged for at least 24 months, including 9 months in wooden barrels). Eight sub-zones make up the appellation: Alto Tirino, Colline Pescaresi, San Martino sulla Marrucina, Teate, Terre Aquilane, Terre dei Peligni, Terre dei Vestini and Terre di Chieti – in these, the minimum proportion of Montepulciano is higher than in the standard wine. Two further sub-zones have been elevated to independent designations: Colline Teramane 2003 and Casauria 2025. The "Cerasuolo" rosé category, which was previously included, was spun off as an independent DOC in 2010. Montepulciano is characterised by a deep ruby-red colour, an ethereal, fruity bouquet of ripe red fruit and spices, and a full-bodied, robust flavour with soft tannins. Everything you need to know about Montepulciano wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Morellino di Scansano DOCG

Morellino di Scansano is the Sangiovese DOCG in the southern coastal Maremma, in the province of Grosseto. Morellino is the local name for Sangiovese, which grows here on the hills between the rivers Ombrone and Albegna; the area encompasses not only the town of Scansano, from which it takes its name, but also parts of Manciano, Magliano in Toscana, Grosseto, Campagnatico, Semproniano and Roccalbegna. Recognised as a DOC in 1978, Morellino di Scansano was elevated to DOCG status from the 2007 vintage onwards. The blend must consist of at least 85 per cent Sangiovese, supplemented by up to 15 per cent of other red grape varieties authorised in Tuscany.

The proximity to the Tyrrhenian Sea gives the Sangiovese here a softer, more fruit-driven character than in the inland areas of Tuscany: sandy and clayey soils, sea breezes and a Mediterranean climate result in an approachable, warm wine. The Annata is released in the spring following the harvest; the Riserva requires at least two years' ageing, including one year in wood. Classic characteristics include a deep ruby red colour, a nose of red cherry, wild berries and Mediterranean scrub, and soft, juicy tannins. Morellino di Scansano thus epitomises the sun-drenched side of Tuscan Sangiovese. Everything you need to know about Maremma wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Moscato d'Asti DOCG

Moscato d'Asti DOCG is one of the best-known Italian sweet wine appellations, recognised alongside Asti Spumante DOCG since 1993. The production area comprises 51 municipalities in the provinces of Asti, Alessandria and Cuneo in southern Piedmont; parts of the area have been part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site "Piedmontese Wine-growing Landscapes" since 2014. The wine is made exclusively from the Moscato Bianco grape variety (100 per cent).

Unlike Asti Spumante, Moscato d'Asti is not made sparkling through a second fermentation, but retains a natural, light effervescence – known in Italian as "vivace" – resulting from the interrupted fermentation. It is traditionally bottled with a low alcohol content (4.5–6.5% vol) and higher residual sugar, and is characterised by an aromatic bouquet of orange blossom, sage, peach and lychee. The Disciplinare also permits the "Vendemmia Tardiva" style, the addition of "Vigna", and two sub-regions (Santa Vittoria d'Alba and Strevi). Everything you need to know about Moscato wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Moscato di Scanzo DOCG

Moscato di Scanzo DOCG – also known as "Scanzo DOCG" – is one of Italy's smallest DOCGs, recognised since 2009 (having evolved from the 2002 DOC). The growing area is limited to the single municipality of Scanzorosciate in the province of Bergamo (Lombardy), on the southern slopes of the Bergamo Alps. It is based on the indigenous Moscato di Scanzo grape (100 per cent), a rare red Muscat variety with a centuries-old local tradition.

The Disciplinare recognises only a single type: a wine made from dried grapes. After being harvested by hand, the grapes are dried for at least 21 days until they reach a sugar content of at least 280 g/l; the grape-to-wine yield is limited to a maximum of 30 per cent. The prescribed ageing period is at least two years; ageing in wooden containers is prohibited. Moscato di Scanzo is characterised by a deep ruby red colour with garnet-red highlights, an intense bouquet of ripe red fruit, raisins and Mediterranean spices, and a sweet, harmonious flavour with an almond-like finish. Everything you need to know about Moscato wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Must

Under EU wine legislation, must is the liquid product obtained from fresh grapes by natural means or through physical processes. An actual alcohol content of no more than 1 per cent by volume is permitted; if fermentation continues to progress, wine legislation refers to this as fermenting must.

Must is not only a precursor to wine, but also a raw material for other products. Concentrated grape must is produced by removing water; rectified concentrated grape must is, in addition, largely free of other constituents. In the case of Marsala, "mosto cotto" – must that has been thickened by heating – may also be used, whilst "sifone" consists of must and added alcohol. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Mistelle · Liqueur Wine · Must Extraction · Sweetening

Must Extraction

Must extraction refers to all the steps involved in turning grapes into must – from draining off the free-run juice to pressing the solid components. The amount of must that may be produced is not left to the producer's discretion: the Disciplinari specify a yield, i.e. the ratio of grape weight to volume of wine. Figures around 70 per cent are common; anything exceeding this may no longer be marketed under the designation.

The reason is one of quality. As pressure increases, tannins, bitter compounds and sediment are increasingly released from the skins, seeds and stems. The yield limit therefore prevents the coarsest elements from entering a quality wine. Some appellations go even further: the Disciplinare for Franciacorta DOCG stipulates that whole, un-destemmed grapes must be pressed – explicitly on the grounds that this allows the must fractions to be separated more cleanly. – SUPERIORE.DE

Native Grape Variety

An autochthonous grape variety refers to a variety of grape that originated in a specific geographical area and has been cultivated there for a long time. The term derives from the Greek autóchthonos (from the earth itself) and is distinct from international grape varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot or Chardonnay, which have spread worldwide beyond their regions of origin. With over 500 documented indigenous varieties, Italy is one of the countries with the greatest diversity of grape varieties in the world; of these, around 350 are regularly used for winemaking.

Among the best-known Italian indigenous varieties are Nebbiolo in Piedmont, Corvina in Veneto, Ribolla Gialla in Friuli, Sangiovese in Tuscany, Aglianico in Campania and Basilicata, Primitivo in Apulia, Nero d'Avola in Sicily and Vermentino in Sardinia. After decades in which international grape varieties dominated, indigenous varieties experienced a renaissance from the 1980s onwards: today, they are regarded as an expression of terroir and regional wine-growing culture. – SUPERIORE.DE

Nizza DOCG

The Nizza DOCG is a Piedmontese red wine appellation from the province of Asti, which was established in 2014 following its separation from the former "Nizza" sub-zone of the Barbera d'Asti DOCG. The first bottles went on sale in 2016. The wine-growing area comprises 18 municipalities around Nizza Monferrato in the province of Asti, covering a compact, concentrated vineyard area. It is made exclusively from Barbera (100 per cent) – unlike the Barbera d'Asti DOCG, which permits up to 10 per cent of other grape varieties.

The Disciplinare recognises two categories: the standard wine (at least 18 months' ageing, of which at least 6 in wood, minimum 13% vol) and the Riserva (at least 30 months, of which 12 in wood). For both, the designation "Vigna" may be used, which requires stricter yield limits (6.3 instead of 7 t/ha) and a higher alcohol content (13.5% instead of 13%). Characteristic of the Nizza are an intense ruby-red colour, a complex bouquet of dark forest fruits, cherry and plum with spicy notes, and a dry, full-bodied and acid-driven flavour – the Barbera signature in its most structured form. Everything you need to know about Barbera wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Noble Rot

Noble rot refers to the desired infection of fully ripe grapes by Botrytis cinerea. This requires weather conditions that are found in only a few regions: early morning mist or proximity to water provide the moisture needed for the fungus to grow, whilst warm afternoons dry the grapes out again. The fungus uses its enzymes to perforate the skin of the berries. Water evaporates through the holes, the constituents become concentrated, and the berries shrivel to the size of raisins. At the same time, it alters their composition: it metabolises sugar, acid and nitrogen, consuming proportionally more acid than sugar in the process and releasing glycerine into the berry. This results in the characteristic noble rot bouquet with notes of honey, saffron and oriental spices.

White grape varieties with high acidity are particularly suitable. In Italy, the Disciplinare for Orvieto DOC includes a separate category, "Muffa Nobile", for wines made from botrytised grapes. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Botrytis

Novello

Novello is a traditional Italian wine category comprising young, fruit-forward red or white DOP wines, which are released onto the market shortly after the harvest and are intended to be drunk within a few months. The legal basis is the Italian Ministerial Decree of 6 October 1989, as amended by the Ministerial Decree of 13 August 2012. The designation is reserved for DOP and IGP wines (still or frizzante) and requires vinification using carbonic maceration, which must account for at least 40 per cent of the finished wine; the remainder may be vinified using traditional methods. The total alcohol content is at least 11% vol, with a maximum residual sugar content of 10 g/l.

As Italy's answer to the French Beaujolais Nouveau, Novello may be sold from 00:01 on 30 October (until 2012, the date was 6 November) and must be bottled by 31 December of the harvest year. Unlike in France, where Gamay is the dominant grape variety, Novello in Italy is not restricted to a single grape variety; the permitted varieties are determined by the respective appellation. Traditionally, Novello is tasted around the Festa di San Martino on 11 November. – SUPERIORE.DE

Oak

Oak is by far the most important wood used in winemaking: dense enough to retain liquid, yet permeable to oxygen. Virtually only three species are used – the European sessile oak (Quercus petraea) and English oak (Quercus robur), as well as the American white oak (Quercus alba). The English oak is rich in ellagitannins and low in aromatic compounds, whilst the sessile oak is, conversely, more aromatic and lower in tannins. American white oak contains around twenty times more whisky lactone – also known as oak lactone – than the European species; this compound is the key component responsible for the oak flavour and has a coconut-like aroma. Only the heartwood of trees, usually over a hundred years old, is used, and French oak is split rather than sawn to preserve the grain and ensure the cask is airtight.

The common distinction between Slavonian and French oak is botanically inaccurate: Slavonian oak is almost always Quercus robur, the same species that also grows in France. As well as the species, stand density is the key factor determining the quality of the wood, as dense stands restrict growth and result in narrower annual rings. Slavonian oak is traditionally used to make the large casks for Barolo, Brunello and Amarone – rich in tannins and with a restrained aroma, as required for ageing over several years without the influence of the wood. Before barrel-making, the staves are stored outdoors for 18 to 36 months; at some cooperages, this can be as long as five years. During this time, the moisture content drops from 70 to 80 per cent to around 14 per cent; aggressive tannins are broken down, and the precursors of aromas develop. Kiln-dried wood, by contrast, is considered "green" and resinous. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Toasting · Barrel · Large Barrel

Offida DOCG

Offida DOCG is a relatively new Marche appellation, recognised as a DOCG since 2011 (having evolved from the Offida DOC established in 2001). The wine-growing region covers the southern Marche between the provinces of Ascoli Piceno and Fermo, stretching from the Adriatic coast up to the medium-altitude hills at between 50 and 650 metres. The DOCG comprises three types, each with its own distinct character: Offida Pecorino (at least 85% Pecorino), Offida Passerina (at least 85% Passerina) and Offida Rosso (at least 85% Montepulciano).

Offida Rosso requires a minimum of 24 months' ageing, 12 of which must be spent in wooden barrels and 3 in the bottle. The Pecorino is typically characterised by a straw-yellow colour with greenish highlights, a bouquet of citrus, sage and aniseed, and a fresh, mineral-driven flavour; Passerina displays a delicately aromatic profile of white blossom, pineapple and citrus. The Rosso presents a deep ruby-red colour, dense fruit notes of red berries and spicy hints with structured tannins. The related Terre di Offida DOC also covers Passerina Spumante, Passito and Vino Santo. Everything you need to know about Marche wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Oltrepò Pavese DOC

The Oltrepò Pavese DOC is one of the largest and highest-volume wine regions in northern Italy, having been recognised since 1970. The wine-growing area encompasses the southernmost part of Lombardy in the province of Pavia, between the Po Valley and the Ligurian Apennines. The DOC is regarded as a "museum of grape varieties" – historically, an unusually high number of indigenous grape varieties were documented here; the Disciplinare continues to reflect this diversity today in numerous wine styles.

The blended wines are based on Barbera and Croatina (25–65 per cent each), supplemented by Uva Rara, Vespolina and Pinot Nero. Single-varietal wines range from Riesling (Renano and Italico), Pinot Nero, Chardonnay, Cortese, Moscato and Malvasia to Barbera and Bonarda. Pinot Nero occupies a prominent position in the Oltrepò Pavese; in 2010, the independent Pinot Nero dell'Oltrepò Pavese DOC designation was created for this grape variety, whilst Metodo Classico sparkling wines are classified under the Oltrepò Pavese Metodo Classico DOCG. Everything you need to know about Lombardy wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Oltrepò Pavese Metodo Classico DOCG

Oltrepò Pavese Metodo Classico is the DOCG designation for classic bottle-fermented sparkling wine from Lombardy's Oltrepò Pavese, the hilly wine-growing region south of the River Po between Pavia and the foothills of the Apennines. The region is Italy's largest growing area for Pinot Nero: the first clones of the grape variety arrived directly from Burgundy as early as 1865. Recognised in 1970 as the DOC designation "Oltrepò Pavese Spumante Metodo Classico", it was separated from the DOC in 2007 to become an independent DOCG.

The Metodo Classico is produced as white and rosé, made from at least 70 per cent Pinot Noir, supplemented by Chardonnay and Pinot Grigio or Bianco; where the wine is labelled as a single-varietal, the Pinot Noir content must rise to 85 per cent. A special rosé variant, the Cruasé, was introduced in 2009; this is a rosé sparkling wine made from at least 70 per cent Pinot Nero. The basic requirement for all types is 15 months' ageing on the lees; for Millesimato, this is at least 24 months, though many producers age their wines for considerably longer. The characteristic profile features a fine perlage in a straw-yellow to salmon-pink colour, with a nose of white flowers, citrus fruit and baker's yeast; with longer ageing, brioche and toasty notes develop. The DOCG thus represents the pinnacle of Lombardy's sparkling wines. Everything you need to know about Lombardy wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

On the Lees

Ageing on the lees refers to the storage of wine on the lees once fermentation is complete. A distinction is made between the coarse lees prior to the first racking and the fine lees thereafter; the fine lees are usually used for longer ageing.

The effect is based on autolysis: the dead yeast cells break down and release mannoproteins, glucans and amino acids into the wine. This alters the texture and mouthfeel, improves oxidative stability and promotes malolactic fermentation; it often allows the sulphur content to be reduced. The process is commonly used for white wines and for sparkling wines following bottle fermentation, where the wine remains on the lees for years. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Autolysis · Bâtonnage

Orange Wine

Orange wine refers to a white wine that is fermented on the skins in the same way as a red wine – hence the term "skin-fermented white wine". Contact with the grape skins lasts from days to months and transfers pigments, tannins and aromas that would otherwise remain in the pomace during conventional white wine production. The colour ranges from amber to coppery orange.

The result is a wine that was harvested as a white but behaves like a red: with noticeable tannins, a denser texture and, often, oxidative notes. Historically, this method is the older form of white wine production – in Georgia, it has been practised in qvevri for millennia; its rediscovery in Europe originated in Friuli and neighbouring Slovenia. Orange wine is not a legal category: EU wine legislation does not recognise the term, and there are no binding guidelines on how long the maceration period must last. Everything you need to know about white wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Maceration · Amphora · Crushing

Organic Wine

Organic wine refers to wine produced from grapes that have been grown and processed in accordance with certified organic standards. The first EU regulations on organic viticulture, dating from 1991, were initially limited to the vineyard; vinification in the cellar was not subject to mandatory regulations until the introduction of EU Regulation 203/2012. Since then, the term has been legally protected on the label. Today, the EU Organic Regulation 2018/848 and Implementing Regulation 2021/1165 apply.

In the cellar, certain winemaking processes are restricted, including partial concentration by chilling, and the number of authorised additives has been reduced. The sulphur limits are lower than for conventional wine and vary depending on the type of wine and residual sugar content. Organic wine can be identified by the EU organic logo and the code number of the organic certification body. Italy is one of Europe's leading producers of organic wine. Everything you need to know about organic wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Orvieto DOC

Orvieto DOC is one of Italy's oldest and most traditional white wine appellations; it has been recognised since 1971 and covers a cross-regional area: the wine-growing area stretches across the province of Terni in Umbria and the province of Viterbo in northern Lazio, along a stretch of the River Tiber. The blend is based on Trebbiano Toscano (known locally as "Procanico") and Grechetto, which must account for at least 60 per cent; this is supplemented by up to 40 per cent of other white grape varieties authorised in the region. The historic core area around the tuff cliffs of Orvieto forms the Orvieto Classico sub-zone.

An unusually wide range of styles is permitted: Secco, Abboccato, Amabile, Dolce, Superiore and Muffa Nobile (made from botrytised grapes). The designation "Vendemmia Tardiva" is linked to the Superiore classification. Orvieto is characterised by a straw-yellow colour, a delicate, fruity aroma and a dry to semi-sweet flavour with a slightly almondy, bitter finish. Winegrowing in Orvieto dates back to Etruscan times; in the Middle Ages, Orvieto was one of the best-known white wines in Europe. Everything you need to know about Umbrian wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Oxidative

"Oxidative" refers to a maturation process involving deliberately increased contact with oxygen. The main source is the wooden cask, whose pores and joints allow for a continuous exchange of gases; if the cask is kept bunged, the amount of oxygen entering is limited to very small quantities. This is to be distinguished from micro-oxygenation, in which oxygen is added in a controlled manner. The oxygen causes tannins to polymerise, stabilises the colour and brings out tertiary aromas.

Wines with a distinctly oxidative character are produced where contact with air becomes a stylistic device: Vin Santo in an unfilled caratello, Marsala and Vernaccia di Oristano, which matures under a yeast veil. This process develops notes of nuts, dried fruit and caramel, whilst the colour takes on an amber hue. The line between this and a fault is blurred – uncontrolled oxidation makes a wine dull and flat. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Reductive · Micro-Oxygenation

Passito

In Italy, "Passito" refers to a wine made from grapes that have been dried prior to vinification – either on the vine or, after harvest, in ventilated rooms and climate-controlled drying chambers. The loss of water concentrates the sugar, aromas and extract, resulting in wines with high density and, in most cases, a distinct residual sugar content. Legally, the EU defines a Passito as a wine made from dried grapes; accordingly, numerous Italian Disciplinari include the designation as a wine type within DOC and DOCG classifications. Traditionally, Passito wines are regarded as meditation wines to be savoured slowly after a meal.

Among the best-known Italian Passito wines are the Passito di Pantelleria made from Zibibbo, the Vin Santo of Tuscany, Recioto della Valpolicella and Recioto di Soave in Veneto, Passito di Caluso made from Erbaluce, Malvasia delle Lipari, Sciacchetrà from the Cinque Terre and the sweet Sagrantino di Montefalco Passito. Two notable examples fall outside the sweet wine category: Amarone della Valpolicella and Sforzato di Valtellina are produced as dry wines. Typical aromas range from dried fruit and dates through to honey and spicy notes. Everything you need to know about dessert wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Passito di Pantelleria DOC

Passito di Pantelleria DOC is one of Sicily's most famous sweet wines and forms part of the Pantelleria DOC (recognised in 1971 as Sicily's third DOC). The growing area is limited to the volcanic island of Pantelleria in the province of Trapani, situated between Sicily and Tunisia. It is made exclusively from the Zibibbo grape (100 per cent), the local name for Moscato d'Alessandria – the name is derived from the Arabic word zabīb ("raisin"), which refers to the Arab introduction of the grape variety in the Middle Ages. The low-growing "Alberello Pantesco" cultivation method has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site (Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity) since 2014.

After being harvested by hand, the grapes are dried in the sun for one to four weeks on bamboo mats or directly on the vine; all stages of production must take place on the island. The Pantelleria DOC comprises a total of eight wine types: alongside Passito, these include Moscato di Pantelleria, Moscato Spumante, Moscato Dorato, Moscato Liquoroso, Passito Liquoroso, Zibibbo Dolce and Pantelleria Bianco. Passito di Pantelleria is characterised by an amber-gold colour, an intense bouquet of dried figs, honey, candied oranges, dates and myrtle, and a sweet, velvety flavour with a high alcohol content (typically over 15% vol). Everything you need to know about dessert wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Perlage

Perlage refers to the visible play of carbon dioxide bubbles in the glass – their size, number, distribution and persistence. As pressure falls when the bottle is opened and the wine is poured, dissolved carbon dioxide comes out of solution and forms bubbles at so-called nucleation sites in the glass.

The appearance depends, among other things, on the carbon dioxide content and pressure, temperature, the wine's constituents, and the shape and surface of the glass. Under EU law, sparkling wine has a minimum excess pressure of 3 bar, whilst semi-sparkling wine has 1 to 2.5 bar. A fine, persistent perlage can be a positive feature, but is not in itself a reliable measure of quality. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Metodo Classico · Metodo Martinotti · Dosage

Persistence

→ See Finish

Phylloxera

Phylloxera (Phylloxera vastatrix, now Daktulosphaira vitifoliae) is an insect from North America, measuring just one to one and a half millimetres in length, which feeds on the roots of Vitis vinifera and causes the vine to die within a few years. It was first recorded in southern France in 1863, and in 1868 the botanist Jules-Émile Planchon identified the pest in Montpellier. From there, it spread rapidly across Europe: to Austria in 1867, Germany in the mid-1870s, Spain in 1876 and Italy in 1879. By 1900, around three-quarters of Europe's vineyards had been destroyed; in Italy, over 100,000 hectares across 27 provinces had already been affected by 1894, with Sicily hit the hardest.

The solution was found in the 1880s in the form of grafting: The European grapevine is grafted onto a phylloxera-resistant American rootstock (Vitis riparia, Vitis rupestris or Vitis berlandieri), and at the grafting point the two grow together to form a new plant. Today, the vast majority of all grapevines worldwide are grown on American rootstocks. Ungrafted vines ("piede franco") have survived mainly in areas where specific site conditions – particularly very sandy soils – hinder the spread of phylloxera, such as in the sandy coastal areas of Marsala and in isolated vineyards on Pantelleria, on Mount Etna and in Sardinia. These rare vineyards are now genetic time capsules and are of inestimable value for the preservation of indigenous varieties. – SUPERIORE.DE

Piave Malanotte DOCG

Piave Malanotte DOCG – also known as "Malanotte del Piave" – is a Venetian appellation that was separated from the existing Piave DOC in 2010. The name derives from the Malanotte sub-zone in the municipality of Vazzola (Province of Treviso). The wine-growing region stretches along the River Piave between the provinces of Treviso and Venice. The wine is made from the indigenous Raboso grape varieties: Raboso Piave (at least 70 per cent) and Raboso Veronese (up to 30 per cent), which may be replaced by up to 5 per cent of other red grape varieties authorised in Treviso and Venice.

A characteristic feature of the DOCG is the traditional winemaking method: The Disciplinare stipulates that 15 to 30 per cent of the grapes must be dried – a technique that softens the Raboso's natural harshness (high acidity, dense tannins) without losing its freshness. The prescribed ageing period is at least 36 months, of which 12 are spent in wooden barrels and 4 in the bottle. The traditional "Bellussera" training system – an elevated, cross-shaped structure – continues to characterise the landscape along the Piave to this day. Malanotte is characterised by a deep ruby-red colour with violet highlights, a complex bouquet of cherry, wild berries and balsamic notes, and an austere, full-bodied flavour with structured tannins. Everything you need to know about Veneto wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Piceno DOC

The Piceno DOC – whose full name is "Rosso Piceno" – is a Marche wine appellation recognised since 1968, with a large production area. The growing region spans four provinces (Ancona, Macerata, Fermo and Ascoli Piceno), with the exception of the Rosso Conero area. It is based on two central Italian grape varieties: Montepulciano (35–85 per cent) and Sangiovese (15–50 per cent), supplemented by up to 15 per cent of other red grape varieties authorised in the Marche region. The production regulations also permit single-varietal Sangiovese wines (at least 85 per cent).

The DOC comprises four categories: Rosso, Sangiovese, Novello and Superiore. Rosso Piceno Superiore is a stricter sub-category from a strictly defined area in the south of the province of Ascoli Piceno; it may be released for sale no earlier than 1 November of the following year; ageing in wood is permitted but not mandatory. Typical characteristics of Piceno include a ruby-red colour, an aromatic bouquet of cherry, plum and red berries with spicy notes, as well as a dry, balanced flavour with soft tannins and great drinkability – one of the most accessible examples of the central Italian Sangiovese-Montepulciano tradition. The name derives from the pre-Roman Piceni people, who inhabited the area before the Roman conquest. Everything you need to know about Marche wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Pieve

In the case of Vino Nobile di Montepulciano, "Pieve" (Italian for "parish") refers to a new classification linked to twelve UGA (Unità Geografiche Aggiuntive). These designations are, amongst other things, rooted in the medieval ecclesiastical territorial administration; historical, landscape and geographical studies of the place names were also taken into account when defining the boundaries.

The most prominent example of this is the Vino Nobile di Montepulciano DOCG in southern Tuscany: since January 2025, twelve official "Pievi" have been established there as UGA: Argiano, Ascianello, Badia, Caggiole, Cerliana, Cervognano, Gracciano, Le Grazie, Sant'Albino, Sant'Angelo, San Biagio and Valiano. Their inclusion on the label is subject to strict guidelines; historical parish boundaries played an important role in defining these areas, alongside other geographical and landscape criteria. In this way, Vino Nobile combines historical place names with a more precise indication of geographical origin. Everything you need to know about Vino Nobile wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Pressing

Pressing refers to the extraction of the solid components after the free-run must has been drawn off. The pressure must meet two requirements: high enough to ensure a full yield, yet low enough not to damage the seeds and stalks – whose tannins and oils make the must harsh and rancid.

The process is carried out in stages. The must obtained first is the finest; as the pressure increases, the levels of tannins, bitter compounds and sediment rise, which is why the final fractions are collected separately and are usually put to other uses. The common types of press range from the historic basket press, through the horizontal press, to the pneumatic tank press, in which a rubber hose presses the mash evenly against the wall – the gentlest method in common use today. – SUPERIORE.DE

Primitivo di Manduria DOC

The Primitivo di Manduria DOC is the historic heartland of Apulian Primitivo, situated in the western province of Taranto and parts of the province of Brindisi (Apulia). The wine-growing region comprises 15 municipalities in the Salento and along the Ionian coast, historically characterised by Mediterranean viticulture. The wine is based on the Primitivo grape, which must account for at least 85 per cent, supplemented by up to 15 per cent of other red grape varieties authorised in Apulia. The prescribed training systems are the traditional Alberello Pugliese or the Contro Spalliera (Guyot or Cordone training).

The Disciplinare recognises two types: the standard wine (at least 13.5% vol, maximum residual sugar of 18 g/l – ranging from dry to "abboccato" style) and the Riserva (at least 14% vol, 24 months' ageing, 9 of which in wooden barrels). In 2011, the Primitivo di Manduria Dolce Naturale DOCG was established as a separate category from the historic sweet wine tradition – Apulia's first DOCG. Characteristic features of Primitivo di Manduria include a deep ruby-red colour with violet highlights, a broad, complex bouquet of cherry, plum and Mediterranean spices, and a full-bodied, velvety flavour with a distinct alcoholic structure. Everything you need to know about Primitivo wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Primitivo di Manduria Dolce Naturale DOCG

Primitivo di Manduria Dolce Naturale DOCG is reserved for a naturally sweet red wine made from 100% Primitivo. The production area lies in Apulia in parts of the provinces of Taranto and Brindisi, centred on the territory around Manduria. The sweet-wine type was originally part of the Primitivo di Manduria DOC and was recognised as a separate DOCG in 2011.

Concentration comes from very ripe or overripe grapes and, depending on the method, from partial drying of the berries. No alcohol is added. The production rules require a minimum total alcoholic strength of 16% vol., of which at least 13% vol. must be actual alcohol, together with at least 50 g/l of residual sugar. The wine therefore typically shows dense, ripe fruit with notes of cherry, fig and dried fruit, often accompanied by cocoa and Mediterranean spice; sweetness, alcohol and tannin combine in a powerful, concentrated style. Everything you need to know about dessert wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Producers' Consortium

A protection consortium is a voluntary organisation of producers, winemakers and bottlers from an Italian DOP or IGP wine region, which is responsible for the protection, promotion and supervision of the designation. The legal basis is Article 41 of the Testo Unico Vino (Law 238/2016), and recognition is granted by the Italian Ministry of Agriculture. A Consorzio di Tutela is recognised if it represents at least 35 per cent of winegrowers and 51 per cent of certified production.

If the higher level of representativeness – 40 per cent of winegrowers and 66 per cent of production – is achieved, the consortium may also carry out certain tasks and measures provided for by law in relation to all producers of the designation included in the control system, not just its members. This does not replace state supervision; monitoring tasks are carried out in coordination with the relevant authorities and inspection bodies. Among the best-known wine consortia are the Consorzio Vino Chianti Classico, founded in 1924 and featuring the Gallo Nero, the Consorzio Tutela Brunello di Montalcino and the Consorzio Tutela Barolo Barbaresco Alba e Roero. – SUPERIORE.DE

Production Regulations

The production specification is the legal text setting out all the quality and production requirements for a DOP or IGP designation. The legal basis is Article 94 of EU Regulation 1308/2013 and, in Italy, Article 35 of the Testo Unico Vino (Law 238/2016). The Disciplinare is drawn up by the producers themselves, usually through the relevant Consorzio, based on an EU model.

Mandatory content includes the definition of the growing area, the authorised grape varieties and their percentage shares, the maximum yield per hectare, oenological practices, the analytical and sensory characteristics of the wine, and the link between the wine and the terroir. Specific requirements, such as minimum ageing in wood and in the bottle, or permitted exceptions for vinification outside the zone, are, where applicable, a binding part of the relevant Disciplinare. Amendments are proposed by the Consorzio, reviewed by the Italian Ministry and published by the European Commission. – SUPERIORE.DE

Protective gas

Protective gas refers to a gas used to displace oxygen from the surface of the wine. Nitrogen and argon are the main gases used: they do not react with the wine and are hardly soluble in it – in chemical terms, they are known as inert gases. Carbon dioxide is also used, but behaves differently because it dissolves in the wine and can affect the mouthfeel.

They are used wherever a container cannot remain filled to the brim: in the headspace of partially filled tanks and casks, when flushing pipes, and during bottling. Argon is heavier than air and therefore forms a particularly stable layer, whilst nitrogen is cheaper – hence the mixtures. This method is not suitable as a long-term solution – opened containers should be emptied within a reasonable timeframe. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Reductive · Topping Up

Pump-over

Remontage, also known as pumping over, refers to the process of drawing off the fermenting must from the bottom of the vat and pumping it back over the cap of pomace. It is the most common of the three methods used to control mash fermentation. Comparative measurements have shown it to result in a more intense extraction than "punch-down" and "délestage"; however, the extent of the difference depends on how the process is carried out in practice.

This advantage is also its limitation: during pumping, the must absorbs oxygen. Whilst this promotes colour stability, it may be undesirable if a reductive style is the aim. Some producers therefore allow the must to flow by gravity alone rather than pumping it. The choice between the three methods is a stylistic decision, and the distinctions between them are fluid: frequency, duration and intensity have a greater impact than the method itself. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Punch-Down · Délestage

Punch-Down

Punch-down, also known by the French term "pigeage", refers to the process of pressing down the cap of pomace during mash fermentation. The carbon dioxide produced carries the skins and seeds to the top, where they form a dense layer. If left undisturbed, it dries out: extraction becomes uneven, and unwanted microorganisms settle on the dry surface.

Traditionally, this was done by foot, as is still the practice in some Port wine production today; nowadays, rods or hydraulic presses are commonly used. In Italy, too, some producers still use foot treading – usually during the initial crushing of the grapes, and less frequently during the pigeage itself. The process is considered relatively gentle because it introduces little oxygen. The frequency and force applied help determine the subsequent tannin structure – with some grape varieties, too vigorous pressing can produce bitter notes. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Pump-over · Délestage

Quality Sparkling Wine

"Quality sparkling wine" is an EU legal category for sparkling wines subject to higher quality requirements than the standard "Vino spumante" (VS). The legal basis for this is EU Regulation 1308/2013, Annex VII, Part II, No. 5. The requirements are a pressure of at least 3.5 bar at 20°C (for small bottles up to 250 ml, 3 bar is sufficient), a total alcohol content of the cuvée of at least 9% vol, and a production process lasting at least six months from the start of the second fermentation. Where production takes place in individual bottles using the Metodo Classico, the prescribed minimum duration of the production process is nine months.

Within the EU classification, there are also two separate categories: aromatic quality sparkling wine (VSQA, No. 6) for wines made from Muscat, Brachetto or similar varieties, and sparkling wine with added carbon dioxide (VSG, No. 7). Most high-quality Italian sparkling wines, from Franciacorta DOCG through to Trento DOC and Alta Langa DOCG, right up to Prosecco DOC, fall into the VSQ category. Everything you need to know about sparkling wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Racking

Racking refers to the process of transferring wine to another vessel, thereby separating it from the settled lees. The first racking takes place once fermentation is complete and separates the wine from the yeast sediment; a second racking usually follows a few weeks later, often in conjunction with sulphiting. Small wineries use a siphon, whilst larger ones use pumps.

The process serves a dual purpose: it removes perishable solids and allows carbon dioxide to escape, whilst at the same time introducing oxygen into the wine – this is desirable during the first racking, but less so later on. For this reason, the bottle is immediately topped up afterwards. One litre of air is sufficient to saturate thirty litres of wine with oxygen, and every milligramme of it binds four milligrammes of sulphurous acid. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Topping Up · Protective gas

Ramandolo DOCG

In 2001, Ramandolo DOCG became Friuli's first DOCG, having been carved out of the Colli Orientali del Friuli DOC. The growing area is confined to the municipalities of Nimis and Tarcento in the province of Udine, at the foot of Monte Bernadia (1,732 m). The south-facing terraced vineyards lie at altitudes of between 250 and 413 metres; the exceptionally high rainfall and marked day-night temperature differences prior to harvest create a climatic "island" that shapes the ripening of the grapes. The wine is made exclusively from Verduzzo Friulano (100 per cent), known locally as "verduzzo giallo".

The Disciplinare recognises two types: Ramandolo and Ramandolo Riserva, the latter of which undergoes a significantly longer ageing process. For both, the grapes are dried on the vine or in suitable rooms – the drying process is a characteristic of the production method, not a designation of a separate type. Ramandolo is characterised by a deep golden-yellow colour, an intense bouquet of dried apricot, honey and hazelnut, and a sweet, richly structured, velvety flavour, elegantly balanced by the Verduzzo's distinctive acidity. Everything you need to know about dessert wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Recioto

In Veneto, "Recioto" refers to sweet wines made from partially dried grapes, in which fermentation is managed or halted in such a way that natural residual sugar is retained. Three DOCG wines bear this name: Recioto della Valpolicella as a red wine, and Recioto di Soave and Recioto di Gambellara as white wines.

The most likely origin of the name is thought to be the Veronese word "recia", meaning "ear" – referring specifically to the most exposed parts of the grape. Historically, Recioto is closely linked to Amarone: Amarone developed as a dry-fermented variant of this wine type; accordingly, early labels bear the designation "Recioto della Valpolicella Amarone". It was only later that Amarone established itself as a designation in its own right. Today, Amarone della Valpolicella and Recioto della Valpolicella are separate DOCG designations with clearly distinct production rules. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Appassimento · Passito · Sweetening · Amarone

Recioto della Valpolicella DOCG

Recioto della Valpolicella is the historic sweet wine of the province of Verona and the forerunner of Amarone. Its roots go back to late antiquity: as early as the 4th century, Cassiodorus described "Acinatico" – a dense, sweet wine made from dried grapes – as the precursor to today's Recioto. The name itself derives from the Veronese dialect word "recia" (ear) and refers to the sun-ripened upper parts of the grapes, which are selected for drying. The appellation encompasses numerous municipalities in the province of Verona, including the sub-zones Classico and Valpantena. It is made primarily from Corvina Veronese (45 to 95 per cent) and Rondinella (5 to 30 per cent); recognised as a DOC in 1968, it was elevated to DOCG status in 2010.

After the harvest, the selected grapes are dried on straw mats for several months, concentrating their sugar, colour and aromas. During fermentation, the process is halted before all the sugar has been converted into alcohol – the key difference from Amarone, which historically emerged from a forgotten Recioto whose fermentation had run its course unchecked. The result is a deep, garnet-red sweet wine with a dense, velvety texture, offering aromas of ripe cherry, fig, raisins and chocolate, and a remarkable freshness that the Corvina grape retains even with high sugar levels. Thus, Recioto della Valpolicella is not only one of Europe's oldest wine styles, but also the sweet root of Amarone's success today. Everything you need to know about dessert wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Recioto di Gambellara DOCG

Recioto di Gambellara DOCG is a Venetian sweet wine appellation, which was elevated from the Gambellara DOC (1970) to DOCG status in 2008. The growing area comprises four municipalities in the western province of Vicenza on the border with Verona (Gambellara, Montebello Vicentino, Montorso Vicentino, Zermeghedo), at the foot of the Lessini Mountains at altitudes of between 250 and 350 metres. It is made exclusively from the Garganega grape (100 per cent).

Unlike the related Recioto di Soave DOCG and Recioto della Valpolicella DOCG, Recioto di Gambellara is made exclusively from a single grape variety. The production regulations recognise two types: the Recioto di Gambellara Classico, which is traditionally also slightly sparkling, and the Recioto di Gambellara Spumante. The name "Recioto" is derived from the Venetian word "recia" (ear) and refers to the upper, sun-ripened part of the bunch of grapes, which is traditionally used for Passito. Characteristic features include a deep straw-yellow to golden-yellow colour, an intense bouquet of dried yellow fruit, honey and marzipan, and a sweet, harmonious flavour with a slightly bitter note on the finish. Everything you need to know about Veneto wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Recioto di Soave DOCG

In 1998, Recioto di Soave DOCG became the first DOCG in Veneto to be recognised, having been separated from the Soave DOC classification. The growing area encompasses the hills around Soave and Monteforte d'Alpone in the province of Verona. The wine is based on the Garganega grape (at least 70 per cent), supplemented by up to 30 per cent Trebbiano di Soave, Pinot Bianco or Chardonnay. The designation "Classico" is reserved for the historic core area around Soave and Monteforte d'Alpone; 33 Menzioni Geografiche Aggiuntive (MGAs) allow for further geographical specification.

The designation is divided into three categories: the still Recioto di Soave, the Recioto di Soave Classico and the Recioto di Soave Spumante. A characteristic feature is the traditional drying of the grapes on bamboo mats (arele) in ventilated rooms (fruttai) for up to six months, resulting in a 35–45 per cent loss in weight; this often leads to the development of fine botrytis. The resulting wine displays a deep golden-yellow hue, an intense bouquet of dried yellow fruit, honey, apricot and the typical almond notes of the Garganega grape, as well as a sweet, full-bodied and rich flavour with a long finish. Everything you need to know about Veneto wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Reductive

"Reductive" refers to an ageing process that excludes contact with oxygen as far as possible. This is achieved using gas-tight containers – usually stainless steel tanks – along with protective gases that displace the oxygen in the container – typically nitrogen, argon or carbon dioxide – sulphiting, containers filled as completely as possible, and short processing routes. The aim is to preserve the primary fruit character; the method is typically used for aromatic white wines, young red wines and sparkling wines.

However, the term has a second meaning, and this regularly leads to misunderstandings. "Reductive" also refers to an aromatic state: when there is too little oxygen, the yeasts produce hydrogen sulphide and related compounds that smell of flint, a struck match, rubber or rotten eggs. If these notes are only faintly present, they disappear through aeration or bottle ageing; a persistent "Böckser" remains. In any case, oxygen cannot be completely excluded – the yeasts themselves require a small amount during fermentation. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Oxidative · Protective gas

Remuage

Remuage refers to the gradual shaking and turning of the bottles following bottle fermentation, so that the yeast sediment collects at the cork or in the neck of the bottle. It is only through this process that the sediment can be specifically removed during the subsequent disgorging.

Traditionally, the bottles are placed in a riddling rack and are rotated regularly over a period of days or weeks, gradually being turned more and more upside down. In modern wineries, gyropalettes or riddling robots often perform this action for many bottles at the same time. Remuage is followed by disgorging. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Tirage · Disgorgement · Metodo Classico

Residual Sugar

Residual sugar is the sugar that remains in the wine after fermentation, expressed in grams per litre. It arises when fermentation ends prematurely – either naturally, because the rising alcohol content inhibits the yeasts, or deliberately through cooling, sulphiting or filtration. EU wine legislation links this to specific taste classifications: dry up to 4 grams per litre, semi-dry up to 12, off-dry up to 45, and sweet above that. Both of the lower categories allow for an exception for wines with pronounced acidity: "dry" up to 9 grams if the total acidity is no more than 2 grams below this, and "semi-dry" up to 18 grams with a maximum difference of 10 grams.

Residual sugar is not perceived as an absolute quantity, but in relation to acidity – which is precisely what the exceptions are designed to address. An acid-forward wine with 8 grams may taste dry, whilst a low-acidity wine with 5 grams may already taste slightly sweet. Furthermore, sugar increases viscosity and tempers the effect of acidity and tannins; this is why wines with residual sweetness often seem softer and fuller-bodied than their alcohol content would suggest. – SUPERIORE.DE

Ripasso

Ripasso is a Valpolicella winemaking technique in which a Valpolicella wine is refermented on the pomace left after the production of Amarone della Valpolicella and/or Recioto della Valpolicella. The current production rules require this refermentation to last at least three days. During the process, additional colour, aroma and tannin compounds as well as fermentable sugars from the pomace and its liquid fraction pass into the wine. Compared with a classic Valpolicella, Ripasso can therefore develop greater body, warmth and structure without being made by the same process as Amarone.

Valpolicella Ripasso has its own DOC; the traditional Valpolicella varieties remain the basis, particularly Corvina or Corvinone and Rondinella. The wine may not be released before 1 January of the second year following the harvest. Stylistically it often shows ripe cherry, darker fruit, spices and occasional hints of dried fruit, but under the production rules it is a dry red wine and should therefore not be defined by supposed "sweetness". Everything you need to know about Valpolicella wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Riserva

"Riserva" is a traditional, specific designation under Italian wine law that indicates extended ageing periods within an existing appellation. Under the Testo Unico Vino (Law 238/2016, Art. 31), it is reserved for DOP wines, including DOC and DOCG, and must be regulated in the relevant Disciplinare. The law stipulates a minimum ageing period of two years for red wines, one year for white wines and tank-fermented sparkling wines (Metodo Martinotti/Charmat), and three years for bottle-fermented sparkling wines (Metodo Classico). In the case of blends from different vintages, the "Riserva" designation may only be used once the minimum ageing period for the entire batch has elapsed.

These periods are minimum requirements, which many appellations significantly exceed in their disciplinary regulations: Chianti Classico Riserva requires a minimum of 24 months' ageing (including 3 in the bottle), Brunello di Montalcino Riserva a total of six years (including 2 years in wood and 6 months in the bottle), and Barolo Riserva 62 months from the year of harvest (of which 18 months in wood). Whether ageing takes place in wooden barrels, in the bottle or in any combination thereof is governed exclusively by the respective disciplinary regulations; the law does not impose a general requirement for ageing in wood. The "Riserva" designation differs from "Superiore" – which primarily encompasses stricter cultivation and vinification requirements – in that it primarily governs the time dimension. – SUPERIORE.DE

Roero DOCG

Roero is the Piedmontese DOCG on the left bank of the Tanaro, opposite the Langhe. It comprises 19 municipalities in the province of Cuneo, whose landscape is characterised by the so-called "rocche" – striking sand formations eroded during the geological phenomenon known as the Tanaro diversion. The soils trace their origins back to an ancient sea inlet: sandy, marine sediments mixed with clay and limestone, significantly lighter than the heavier marl soils of the Langhe. Recognised as a DOC in 1985, Roero was elevated to DOCG status in 2004.

The DOCG comprises two wines: Roero Rosso, made from at least 95 per cent Nebbiolo, with 20 months' ageing (including 6 months in wood) for the standard version and 32 months (including 6 months in wood) for the Riserva; and the Roero Arneis, made from at least 95 per cent Arneis, also available as Riserva and Spumante. On these sandy soils, Nebbiolo displays a different character to that found in Barolo or Barbaresco: more fruit-driven, less tannic and more accessible earlier. The white Arneis offers a delicate bouquet of white flowers, pear and hazelnut and is now one of Piedmont's best-known white wines. Thus, the DOCG combines a more approachable Nebbiolo with an Arneis that sets standards beyond the region. Everything you need to know about Nebbiolo wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Romagna Albana DOCG

Romagna Albana is the historic white wine DOCG of Emilia-Romagna and, in 1987, was the very first white wine in Italy to be awarded DOCG status. The region lies between the provinces of Bologna, Ravenna and Forlì-Cesena, with the Spungone limestone formation forming its geological backbone as it runs through the hills. The wine is based on the indigenous Albana grape, which must account for at least 95 per cent of the blend – a grape variety that is rarely found outside the Romagna region and which, for a white wine, has an unusually high tannin content. Recognised as a DOC in 1967, it was elevated to DOCG status in 1987; in 2011, the name was changed from Albana di Romagna to Romagna Albana.

The DOCG comprises four styles: Secco (dry), Amabile (semi-sweet), Dolce (sweet) and Passito, supplemented by a Passito Riserva. For the Passito, the grapes are dried between 15 October and 30 March to achieve a sugar content of at least 285 g per litre; in the event of botrytis infection (muffa nobile), these time limits do not apply and the requirements become stricter. The dry Albana displays a structure unusual for a white wine, with noticeable tannins, apricot, chamomile and citrus notes; the Passito is amber in colour, with aromas of dried fruit, honey and peach. In this way, the DOCG encompasses the full spectrum of one of Italy's most distinctive white grape varieties. Everything you need to know about Emilia-Romagna wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Romagna Sangiovese DOC

Romagna Sangiovese DOC is the main red wine appellation in Emilia-Romagna; in its current form, it has been recognised since 2011 as part of the overarching Romagna DOC (its predecessor was Sangiovese di Romagna DOC, established in the 1960s). The growing region stretches across the hilly pre-Apennine zone in the provinces of Forlì-Cesena, Ravenna, Rimini and seven municipalities in the province of Bologna – one of the largest Sangiovese appellations in central Italy in terms of area. The wine is based on the Sangiovese grape, which must account for at least 85 per cent. A notarial deed from Faenza dating from 1672 provides early evidence of the Sangiovese grape variety in the Romagna region.

The DOC recognises three quality levels: the standard wine (at least 12% vol), the Superiore (at least 12.5%) and the sub-zone wines with the Riserva option (at least 13%, maximum yield 9 t/ha). The Disciplinare recognises 16 official sub-zones – including Bertinoro (calcareous, porous Spungone soils, full-flavoured, medium-bodied wines), Predappio (Spungone, sand and clay; firm tannins, long ageing potential) and Modigliana (marl and sandstone up to 570 m altitude; a slender, floral style with lively acidity). Typical characteristics of Romagna Sangiovese include a ruby-red colour, an aromatic bouquet of red fruit and spicy notes, and a dry, balanced flavour, the stylistic range of which reflects the diversity of the sub-regions. Everything you need to know about Emilia-Romagna wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Rosato

→ See Rosé Wine

Rosazzo DOCG

In 2011, the Rosazzo DOCG was carved out of the Colli Orientali del Friuli DOC. This small wine-growing region comprises only the municipalities of Manzano, San Giovanni al Natisone and a small area in Corno di Rosazzo (Province of Udine). The soils consist of marl and sandstone of Eocene origin – locally known as "Ponca" or "flysch" – which lend the wine a distinctive mineral structure. The name derives from the Romanesque Abbazia di Rosazzo (founded 1068–1070), whose monastic records document wine production in the area as far back as the 14th century; the Serenissima Repubblica di Venezia supplied these wines to its courts from 1420 onwards.

Rosazzo is a carefully crafted blend of several grape varieties: Friulano (at least 50 per cent), Sauvignon (20–30 per cent), Pinot Bianco and/or Chardonnay (20–30 per cent) and Ribolla Gialla (up to 10 per cent); in addition, up to 5 per cent of other white grape varieties authorised in the province of Udine may be used. The result is a refined, full-bodied white wine with a deep straw-yellow to golden-yellow hue, a complex bouquet of ripe white fruit, citrus blossom, bergamot and Mediterranean herbs, as well as a dry, salty-mineral flavour with balanced acidity and pronounced ageing potential. Everything you need to know about Friuli wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Rosé

→ See Rosé Wine

Rosso Conero DOC

The Rosso Conero DOC is the main red wine appellation in the Marche region, centred around the coastal massif of Monte Conero (572 m), and has been recognised since 1967. The wine-growing region comprises seven municipalities in the province of Ancona: the core area of Ancona, Offagna, Camerano, Sirolo and Numana, as well as parts of Castelfidardo and Osimo. The wines are based on the Montepulciano grape, which must account for at least 85 per cent, supplemented by up to 15 per cent of other red grape varieties authorised in the Marche region. The coastal climate of Monte Conero, with warm Adriatic influences and rocky limestone soils, shapes the wines' characteristic freshness and structure.

The standard wine is the Rosso Conero DOC (at least 11.5% vol); the Riserva version was spun off in 2004 as a separate Conero DOCG (at least 85% Montepulciano, a maximum of 15% Sangiovese, aged for at least 24 months, at least 12.5% vol). Since the 2025 Disciplinare reform, the Conero DOCG has also included a "Rosa" or "Rosato" category. Rosso Conero is characterised by a deep ruby-red colour, an intense bouquet of dark, ripe fruit, cherry and spicy notes, as well as a full-bodied, balanced flavour with soft tannins and good freshness – characteristics that position Rosso Conero as a distinct variant of Montepulciano alongside the higher-volume Montepulciano d'Abruzzo DOC. Everything you need to know about Marche wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Rosso Piceno

→ See Piceno DOC

Roundness

"Round" describes a wine without any pronounced harshness: acidity, tannins and alcohol blend together in such a way that no single component stands out.

This impression is created by ripe tannins, moderate acidity and often a touch of residual sugar or glycerine, which round off the overall balance. Unlike "soft", which refers to the absence of harshness, "round" focuses on the cohesiveness of the overall impression. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Softness · Velvety · Silky

Ruché di Castagnole Monferrato DOCG

Ruché di Castagnole Monferrato DOCG is a small but distinctive Piedmontese appellation in the Monferrato Astigiano region, which was upgraded from DOC (1987) to DOCG in 2010. The wine-growing area comprises just seven municipalities in the province of Asti: Castagnole Monferrato, Grana, Montemagno, Portacomaro, Refrancore, Scurzolengo and Viarigi – situated on the left bank of the Tanaro in a hilly, wooded landscape. The wine is based on the rare, indigenous Ruché grape variety, which must account for at least 90 per cent of the blend, supplemented by up to 10 per cent Barbera and/or Brachetto.

The Ruché grape variety had all but died out by the 1980s; its DOC designation in 1987 (at the instigation of, amongst others, the parish priest Don Cauda) and its subsequent elevation to DOCG status were instrumental in its rescue. The Disciplinare recognises two categories: the standard wine and the Riserva; both permit the addition of "Vigna". Characteristic of Ruché are a ruby-red colour with subtle violet highlights, an aromatic bouquet of red fruit, roses and spicy notes with a characteristic floral finish, as well as a dry, medium-bodied and harmonious flavour – a highly distinctive varietal profile in Piedmont. Everything you need to know about Piedmont wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Sagrantino di Montefalco

→ See Montefalco Sagrantino DOCG

Salice Salentino DOC

Salice Salentino DOC is one of Apulia's most important wine appellations, recognised since 1976. The production area encompasses several municipalities in the provinces of Lecce and Brindisi in southern Salento – named after the municipality of Salice Salentino. The basis for the red wines is the Negroamaro grape, which must account for at least 85 per cent, supplemented by up to 15 per cent of other red grape varieties authorised in Apulia (historically, primarily Malvasia Nera di Lecce and Brindisi).

An unusually wide range of styles is permitted: Rosso, Rosato, Bianco (Chardonnay, Fiano, Pinot Bianco and/or Verdeca, totalling at least 70 per cent), Superiore, Aleatico and Aleatico Liquoroso – many of which are also produced as Spumante. The Riserva version requires at least 24 months' ageing, 6 of which must be in wooden casks. The traditional training system is the Alberello Pugliese, a low bush-style training system whose origins in southern Apulia are traced back to the Greek colonisation. Salice Salentino is characterised by a deep ruby-red colour, a warm, Mediterranean bouquet of ripe red fruit, cherry and spicy notes, as well as a full-bodied, soft-tannic flavour with rich warmth and good structure. Everything you need to know about Negroamaro wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Salinity

Salinity describes a flavour sensation reminiscent of sea salt or brine, and usually occurs alongside high acidity and a firm structure. Wine does indeed contain salts – primarily potassium, sodium, magnesium and calcium compounds, as well as chlorides, which form part of the dry extract. In most wines, however, their concentrations are at or below the threshold of perception, so that the impression arises more from the interplay of acidity, extract and a low pH value than from measurable salt.

Saltiness becomes clearly detectable where salty soils and artificial irrigation coincide: in such cases, chlorides enter the vine in quantities that even inexperienced tasters can perceive. The widespread belief that proximity to the sea alone introduces salt into the wine, however, is unsubstantiated – as with minerality, the path from the soil to the glass cannot be directly traced. – SUPERIORE.DE

Secco

Depending on the type of wine, "secco" refers to different sugar levels. For still wine, a maximum of 4 grams of residual sugar per litre is permitted, or 9 grams if the total acidity is no more than 2 grams per litre lower than the residual sugar.

For sparkling wine, "secco" corresponds to the range of 17 to 32 grams per litre; synonyms include "dry" and "asciutto". For Marsala, however, "secco" means less than 40 grams of reducing sugars per litre. The term can therefore only be clearly defined in conjunction with the specific type of wine. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Dosage · Residual Sugar

Sforzato di Valtellina DOCG

The Sforzato di Valtellina DOCG – known locally as "Sfursat di Valtellina" – is one of Italy's most prestigious Alpine wine appellations and is produced using the appassimento method with a specific Nebbiolo variety. The wine-growing area consists of terraced vineyards on the right bank of the River Adda in Valtellina (Province of Sondrio, Lombardy), between the municipalities of Ardenno and Tirano, up to an altitude of 700 metres. The wine is made primarily from the Nebbiolo grape – known locally as "Chiavennasca" – accounting for at least 90 per cent, supplemented by up to 10 per cent of other red grape varieties authorised in the province of Sondrio.

A hallmark of the DOCG is the rigorous appassimento process: after being harvested by hand, the grapes are left to dry on bamboo mats or in crates in ventilated rooms (fruttai) until December (pressing does not begin until 10 December). The resulting wine must reach an alcohol content of at least 14% vol and be aged for at least 20 months, 12 of which must be in wooden barrels. Characteristic of Sforzato are a deep ruby-red colour with garnet-red highlights, an intense bouquet of dried red fruit, raisins, cherries and spicy notes, as well as a full-bodied, structured flavour with pronounced tannins and long ageing potential – the Alpine answer to the Amarone tradition of Veneto. Everything you need to know about Valtellina wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Silky

"Silky" describes an even finer mouthfeel than "velvety": the wine glides over the palate without leaving any resistance.

Tannins are present, but delicate and in lower concentrations – typical of varieties with a naturally fine tannin structure, such as Pinot Nero, or of wines that have undergone long bottle ageing, during which some of the tannins have already broken down. Whereas "velvety" still has some texture, "silky" is smooth. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Velvety · Softness · Roundness

Skin-Contact Wine

→ See Orange Wine

Small Barrel

Wooden barrels of up to around 600 litres are classed as "small barrels" – as opposed to "large barrels", which start at 1,000 litres. The term refers to a range of sizes rather than a regulated category: it encompasses the 225-litre barrique as well as the tonneau, the caratello and regional formats.

What they have in common is their effect. There is a large surface area of wood available per litre of wine, resulting in a correspondingly pronounced release of aromas and supply of oxygen. When people talk about "small oak", they are therefore usually referring not to the size, but to the character: more toasty and vanilla notes, and faster maturation. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Barrique · Tonneau · Caratello · Large Barrel · Barrel

Soave Superiore DOCG

Soave Superiore is the top-tier DOCG of the famous white wine from eastern Veneto. In 2001, the Superiore version was spun off from the Soave DOC – recognised in 1968 – to become a separate DOCG, whilst the DOC designation remained in place for the standard version. The wine-growing region lies in the province of Verona and comprises twelve municipalities between the historic centre of Soave and the eastern Veronese hills. The wine is based on the indigenous Garganega grape, accounting for at least 70 per cent of the blend, supplemented by up to 30 per cent Trebbiano di Soave (nostrano) and Chardonnay.

The delicate almond note on the finish is the hallmark of Soave, characterised by the Garganega grown on the volcanic soils of the Lessini foothills. A straw-yellow colour with greenish highlights and a bouquet of white flowers and yellow fruits round off the profile. The DOCG comprises three categories: the Superiore, the Superiore Classico from the historic core area, and the Superiore Riserva with a higher minimum alcohol content. A minimum of three months' bottle ageing is required before sale; the wine may be released for sale no earlier than 1 April of the following year, whilst the Riserva must be aged for at least twelve months from 1 November of the harvest year. Everything you need to know about Soave wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Softness

"Soft" describes the absence of harshness: acidity and tannins take a back seat; nothing is scratchy or sharp. This impression arises from moderate acidity, tannins that have mellowed with time, and often a touch of residual sugar or glycerine.

"Soft" is thus the umbrella term for this family of textures, which the other terms further define – "round" refers to the cohesiveness of the overall impression, "velvety" to a dense mouthfeel with a fine texture, and "silky" to an even smoother glide. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Roundness · Velvety · Silky

South Tyrol

→ See Alto Adige DOC

Spicy

"Spicy" describes aromas reminiscent of spices – pepper, cloves, cinnamon, liquorice or Mediterranean herbs. The sources vary: some originate from the grape variety itself, such as the peppery note in Syrah, which is attributable to the sesquiterpene rotundone. Another arises in the wooden cask, where vanilla aromas and smoky, spicy compounds are formed as the inside of the cask is charred. A third only emerges during bottle ageing, when the primary fruit notes recede and tertiary notes come to the fore.

"Spicy" is therefore not an indication of origin or production method, but a collective term for impressions arising from very different sources. Anyone wishing to determine the cause should pay attention to the context: grape variety "spiciness" is already evident in young wine, "wood-derived spiciness" persists for a long time, whilst "ageing-derived spiciness" only emerges with the passing of the years. – SUPERIORE.DE

Spontaneous Fermentation

Spontaneous fermentation refers to fermentation that begins without the addition of cultured yeasts. It is triggered by the yeasts present on the grape skins and in the cellar. A characteristic feature is the sequence of events: initially, various non-Saccharomyces yeasts, which tolerate low levels of alcohol, are active; as the alcohol content rises, the actual wine yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, takes over. This early phase is regarded as a source of additional aromas, and often results in higher glycerine levels.

The trade-off is reduced predictability: the start of fermentation can be delayed, fermentation may stall and leave residual sugar behind, and volatile acidity may develop. A middle ground is provided by the "pied de cuve" – a small quantity of early-harvested grapes is allowed to ferment spontaneously and used as a starter. It is also common to begin with spontaneous fermentation and add selected yeast later on. – SUPERIORE.DE

Spumante

→ See Sparkling Wine

Stabilisation

Stabilisation refers to measures that prevent a wine from becoming cloudy or developing sediment after bottling. There are two main scenarios.

Unstable proteins flocculate as soon as the wine warms up – during transport or whilst on the shelf. These are removed before bottling using bentonite; white wines are particularly affected. Tartar, on the other hand – the potassium salt of tartaric acid – crystallises when cold. To prevent this, the wine is cooled vigorously for a few days so that the crystals precipitate before bottling. Alternatively, additives inhibit crystal formation – mannoproteins, which naturally enter the wine during ageing on the lees, have the same effect. Tartar crystals in the bottle are not a fault: they are flavourless and do not affect the wine. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Fining · Autolysis

Stainless Steel Tank

Since the 1970s, the stainless-steel tank has replaced concrete and wood as the standard vessel. It is gas-tight, flavour-neutral, easy to clean and can be precisely temperature-controlled using cooling jackets – a prerequisite for controlled fermentation and reductive ageing.

What it does not provide is the influence of wood; moreover, oxygen exposure is significantly lower than in an oak barrel. A wine can still mature in steel, however – the processes simply take place more slowly and without the aromas contributed by the wood. For fresh, fruit-driven wines, this is precisely what is desired. Those seeking woody notes or more rapid development opt for wood, clay or concrete – often in combination, such as fermentation in steel followed by ageing in barrels. – SUPERIORE.DE

State Control Seal

The state control mark is the legal category under Italian wine law for the official certification marks on DOP wines. The legal basis is Article 48 of the Testo Unico Vino (Law 238/2016), which governs the use, issuance and control of the Contrassegno di Stato. Today, the mark serves to ensure the control and traceability of protected wines.

The control mark can take two forms: as a physical state band around the neck of the bottle, or as an electronic tracking system in accordance with Article 48(8), which may serve as an alternative for DOC and IGT wines. Both systems ensure that bottled wines can be linked to certified production and support their traceability. The physical labels are produced by the Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato; issuance and administration are the responsibility of the recognised control bodies for the respective appellation; this task may be delegated to the Consorzio di Tutela. A Ministerial Decree of 19 December 2023 standardised the system and extended its use to IGT wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

State Excise Seal

The state-issued band is the official tamper-proof strip around the neck of all Italian DOCG wines, which certifies their authenticity, origin and traceability. The Fascetta di Stato is printed by the Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato in Rome and consists of watermarked paper featuring microprint, fluorescent inks and a unique alphanumeric number that identifies each individual bottle. The recognised control bodies for the respective appellations are responsible for issuing and distributing the fascetta; this task may be delegated to the relevant Consorzio di Tutela.

The fascetta is compulsory for all DOCG wines, but voluntary for DOC and IGT wines. In recent years, numerous consortia have opted to adopt the banderole on a voluntary basis for traceability reasons, including Prosecco DOC, Sicilia DOC and Pantelleria DOC. A ministerial decree dated 19 December 2023 standardised its use for IGT wines. Since 2025, a new banderole featuring a tricolour motif and enhanced digital traceability via a QR code has been in circulation, which directs consumers to the wine's certification details. – SUPERIORE.DE

Still Wine

Still wine is the common term for wine without any perceptible carbonation; the basic product category under wine legislation is simply "wine". The legal basis for this is EU Regulation 1308/2013, Annex VII, Part II, No. 1. To distinguish it from the sparkling categories, the following applies: the excess carbon dioxide pressure at 20°C must be less than 1 bar; from 1 bar onwards it is classified as "frizzante", and from 3 bar onwards as "spumante". The minimum alcohol content varies according to the EU wine-growing zone; for Italy, which is predominantly in Zone C, the minimum alcohol content is generally 9% vol, with exceptions for DOP wines and aromatic sweet wines.

Still wine comprises the vast majority of all European wines: the classic red, white and rosé wines, as well as still dessert wines or passiti. In Italy, virtually all major DOP red wines, such as Barolo DOCG, Brunello di Montalcino DOCG, Chianti Classico DOCG and Amarone della Valpolicella DOCG fall into this category, as do the great white wines such as Fiano di Avellino DOCG, Vermentino di Gallura DOCG and Soave Superiore DOCG. – SUPERIORE.DE

Structure

Structure refers to the framework that underpins a wine: acidity and tannins form the axes around which fruit, alcohol and residual sugar are organised. The term is often confused with "body", but it means something different. Body refers to the perceived weight, whilst structure refers to the internal organisation – a wine can have plenty of body but little structure if alcohol and extract levels are high but acidity and tannins are lacking, and conversely, it can appear light yet still have a clearly defined structure.

Wines with good structure are considered to have better ageing potential because the very components that form the framework also act as natural preservatives. Structure is developed in the vineyard through yield and harvest timing, and in the cellar through maceration time, pressing techniques and malolactic fermentation, which converts malic acid into the softer lactic acid, thereby specifically reducing acidity. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Body

Subzone

A sub-zone is defined as a clearly demarcated smaller zone within a DOP wine region, which is regulated in the denomination's Disciplinare. The legal basis is Article 29(2) of the Testo Unico Vino (Law 238/2016). The prerequisites are specific ecological characteristics or a traditionally recognised identity, a distinct geographical, historical or administrative name, and stricter production regulations than those of the parent designation. Only DOP wines – that is, DOC and DOCG – may define sub-zones; IGP wines may not.

If a sub-zone of a DOC achieves commercial recognition and meets the representativeness thresholds set out in the Testo Unico, it may become an independent DOC in its own right; promotion to DOCG is subject to significantly stricter requirements. Well-known Italian sub-zones include the eight within the Chianti DOCG (including Rufina, Colli Fiorentini and, from 2026, Terre di Vinci), the five of the Valtellina Superiore DOCG (Sassella, Grumello, Inferno, Valgella, Maroggia) and those of the Barbera d'Asti DOCG (Tinella, Colli Astiani). "Menzione Geografica Aggiuntiva" and "Unità Geografiche Aggiuntive" are further tools for the geographical differentiation of individual designations, but do not form a universally applicable hierarchy below a sub-zone. – SUPERIORE.DE

Sugar-free extract

The sugar-free extract is the total extract minus the residual sugar, expressed in grams per litre. It therefore only takes into account those components that do not contribute to sweetness: non-volatile acids, glycerine, colouring agents and tannins, nitrogen compounds and minerals.

This parameter was introduced because the sugar content is comparatively easy to influence. The other constituents depend on yield and ripeness, but are also influenced by vinification and treatment. In dry wines, the sugar-free extract is practically equal to the total extract; it is only in wines with residual sweetness and noble rot wines that the two differ significantly. In wine analysis, both values are also used to detect adulteration, such as dilution with water. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Dry Extract

Sulphiting

Sulphiting refers to the addition of sulphur dioxide during the winemaking process. It is not carried out just once, but at several stages: where appropriate, whilst the must is still in the tank, after alcoholic fermentation has been completed, at each racking, and before bottling.

The amount required depends on the pH value, the condition of the grapes, the residual sugar and the quantity of sulphur-binding by-products of fermentation. The timing also plays a role: an early addition, around a week after the end of fermentation, ensures microbiological safety but inhibits the wine's maturation; a late addition, after around twelve weeks, accelerates maturation whilst simultaneously increasing the risk. Red wine generally requires less sulphur than white wine, as its tannins provide additional antioxidant protection. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Sulphur Dioxide

Sulphur Dioxide

Sulphur dioxide, which forms sulphurous acid when dissolved in water, is the most important preservative in winemaking; its salts are known as sulphites. Every wine contains sulphur dioxide, even without any being added – the yeasts produce small amounts of it themselves during fermentation. A distinction is made between free and bound sulphurous acid. The bound form is coupled to acetaldehyde, pyruvic acid and other by-products of fermentation and contributes very little to preservation. It is primarily the free form that is effective, and the level of antimicrobial protection depends on the molecular concentration, which is determined by the pH value: at a low pH, less total sulphur is required. The antioxidant effect follows different mechanisms. The effect is threefold: against microorganisms, against oxidation and against browning enzymes. In addition, sulphur dioxide binds the acetaldehyde produced during fermentation and prevents it from causing off-flavours.

EU wine legislation limits the total sulphite content according to wine type and residual sugar – for dry wines, this is set at 150 mg/l for red wine and 200 mg/l for white and rosé wines; the maximum limit increases with the residual sugar content, whilst it is lower for organically produced wines. From 10 mg/l, the statement "contains sulphites" must appear on the label. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Sulphiting

Superiore

"Superiore" is a traditional, specific designation under Italian wine law that indicates a higher standard of quality within an existing appellation. Under the Testo Unico Vino (Law 238/2016), it is reserved for DOP wines, including DOC and DOCG, and must be expressly regulated in the relevant disciplinary regulations. Stricter requirements apply compared with the basic category of the same designation: the yield per hectare is at least 10 per cent lower, whilst the minimum natural alcohol content of the grapes and the alcohol content of the finished wine are each at least 0.5 per cent vol higher.

In practice, the designation ranges from a quality tier within a DOC – for example, Valpolicella Superiore – to independent DOCGs that have evolved from earlier "Superiore" versions: Bardolino Superiore, Soave Superiore, Frascati Superiore, Aglianico del Vulture Superiore and Valtellina Superiore are now each distinct appellations in their own right. Superiore differs from Riserva in that it primarily concerns the cultivation and vinification requirements, not the ageing period. – SUPERIORE.DE

Sur lie

→ See On the Lees

Suvereto DOCG

The Suvereto DOCG is a small but prestigious Tuscan appellation in the province of Livorno, close to the coast and the Bolgheri area. The wine-growing area is limited to the "high-quality soils" within the municipal boundaries of Suvereto – a very modest area overall. The DOCG was separated from the Val di Cornia DOC in 2011 (the Suvereto sub-zone having been established in 2000) and was fundamentally modernised with the 2025 Disciplinare reform.

Since then, the DOCG has featured a basic style made from Sangiovese, Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc and/or Syrah, either individually or in combination, accounting for at least 85 per cent; other authorised red grape varieties may together account for no more than 15 per cent. In addition, there are five single-varietal types: Suvereto Sangiovese, Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc and Syrah (all 100% single-varietal). The word "Toscana" must appear on the label. The Riserva requires a minimum of 24 months' ageing, of which 12 must be in wood and 6 in the bottle. Suvereto wines are characterised by a deep ruby-red colour with garnet-red highlights as they age, an intense, elegant bouquet with varietal aromas, and a warm, well-balanced, tannic flavour – a Tuscan profile spanning the Tyrrhenian coast and the Colline Metallifere, which gives equal prominence to Bordeaux varieties and Sangiovese. Everything you need to know about Maremma wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Sweet Wine

→ See Dessert Wine

Sweetening

Under EU wine legislation, "sweetening" refers to the addition of grape must, concentrated grape must or rectified concentrated grape must to wine. No other sources of sugar are permitted for this purpose. Sweetening may increase the total alcohol content of the wine by no more than 4 per cent by volume. This must be clearly distinguished from enrichment: fermentable sugar in a permitted form is added before or during fermentation in order to increase the subsequent alcohol content; with sweetening, by contrast, the added sugar remains in the finished wine as sweetness.

Many classic Italian sweet wines derive their sweetness in other ways. In Passito and Recioto, the grapes are dried, causing a loss of water and concentrating sugar and other constituents; in Moscato d'Asti, natural residual sugar is retained by stopping fermentation at an early stage. Fortification can also halt fermentation and thereby preserve natural grape sugar. These methods must be distinguished from the subsequent sweetening of the finished wine. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Must · Residual Sugar · Recioto · Passito · Fortification

Tannin

Tannins are polyphenols that give wine its structure and act as antioxidants. They originate from the skins, seeds and stems of the grapes, as well as from the wooden cask, although grape tannins and wood tannins differ chemically. They have virtually no flavour of their own; they are perceived as a sensation on the palate because they bind to proteins in saliva and reduce its lubricating effect.

It is not just the quantity that matters, but also the source: tannins from unripe seeds taste harsh and bitter, whilst those from fully ripe skins are more refined. The often-claimed link between molecular size and softness, however, cannot be confirmed by sensory analysis – studies tend to find the opposite. What is certain is that a wine becomes softer with age because tannins react with one another and with colouring compounds, and some of them precipitate out as a deposit. Before the harvest, therefore, the winegrower not only checks the sugar and acidity levels but also bites into the seeds. In the cellar, the maceration time, pressing technique, destemming and the choice of cask determine how much and which tannins end up in the wine. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Astringency · Velvety · Silky

Taurasi DOCG

Taurasi is Campania's red wine DOCG and, in 1993, became the first DOCG in the whole of southern Italy. It is situated in the province of Avellino in the mountainous region of Irpinia and comprises 17 municipalities surrounding the eponymous town of Taurasi, whose origins date back to the ancient Samnite and Roman town of Taurasia. The wine is based on the indigenous Aglianico grape, which must account for at least 85 per cent of the blend, supplemented by up to 15 per cent of other red varieties from Campania; in practice, Taurasi is often produced as a single-varietal wine made exclusively from Aglianico. The DOC, recognised in 1970, was upgraded to DOCG status in 1993.

In Irpinia, Aglianico finds its most distinctive expression in Campania at altitudes between 350 and 700 metres: significant day-night temperature fluctuations, mixed clay and limestone soils with volcanic inclusions, and the proximity to the Tyrrhenian Sea characterise the wines. The ageing requirements are strict: at least three years for the standard wine, including twelve months in wood; the Riserva requires four years, including eighteen months in wood. Here, Aglianico reveals its more austere, long-lived character: a deep ruby red with garnet reflections when mature, firm, grainy tannins and a spicy, earthy bouquet that develops into notes of tobacco and leather with age. Thus, Taurasi stands as the Campanian benchmark for Aglianico, with an ageing potential of two decades or more. Everything you need to know about Aglianico wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Teroldego Rotaliano DOC

The Teroldego Rotaliano DOC was Trentino's first single-varietal DOC in 1971 and is also one of the smallest. The growing area is confined to the Piana Rotaliana (Campo Rotaliano) at the confluence of the Adige and Noce rivers, spread across the municipalities of Mezzolombardo, Mezzocorona and the hamlet of Grumo in San Michele all'Adige. At the start of the 20th century, the irredentist geographer Cesare Battisti described Campo Rotaliano as "il più bel giardino vitato d'Europa" (the most beautiful vineyard in Europe). The wine is made exclusively from the indigenous Teroldego grape variety (100 per cent), which has been documented in the region since the 14th century and is related to Lagrein and Marzemino.

The production regulations recognise four types: Teroldego Rotaliano (Rosso or Rubino), Teroldego Rotaliano Rosato (also known as "Kretzer" after its historical German name), Teroldego Rotaliano Superiore (at least 12.0% vol) and Superiore Riserva (aged for at least two years). Teroldego is characterised by a deep ruby-red colour with violet highlights, an aromatic bouquet of wild blackberries, blueberries, violets and spicy notes, as well as a dry, medium-bodied and velvety flavour with characteristically soft tannins and good freshness – the defining classic red wine of Trentino. Everything you need to know about Teroldego wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Terre Alfieri DOCG

Terre Alfieri DOCG is a very small but highly distinctive Piedmontese appellation, which was elevated to DOCG status in 2020 (having been a DOC since 2009). The wine-growing area spans seven municipalities in the province of Asti and four in the province of Cuneo, on the border with the Roero region. The name derives from Vittorio Alfieri (1749–1803), the Asti-born poet and playwright of the Italian Classical period. The soils consist of marine sedimentary deposits (the so-called "Asti sands") at altitudes ranging from 130 to 350 metres.

The production regulations recognise five categories based on the two grape varieties Arneis (white wine) and Nebbiolo (red wine), each with a minimum varietal content of 85 per cent: Terre Alfieri Arneis and Arneis Superiore, as well as Terre Alfieri Nebbiolo, Nebbiolo Superiore and Nebbiolo Riserva. The designation "Vigna" is permitted subject to stricter yield limits. Typical characteristics of Terre Alfieri Arneis include a straw-yellow colour, an aromatic bouquet of white blossom, pear and Mediterranean herbs, and a dry, refined flavour; the Nebbiolo boasts a ruby-red colour, an elegant bouquet of red fruit, violets and spices, and a medium-bodied structure with fine tannins – an exciting alternative to the better-known Nebbiolo DOCGs of the Roero and the Langhe. Everything you need to know about Piedmont wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Terre Tollesi DOCG

The Terre Tollesi DOCG – also known as "Tullum DOCG" – is one of the smallest appellations in Abruzzo, having been elevated to DOCG status in 2019 (from DOC status in 2008). The growing area is limited to the entire municipal territory of Tollo in the province of Chieti – a small village around 5 kilometres from the Adriatic Sea and at the foot of the Maiella massif, with altitudes of up to 228 metres. Traditional training systems include the Pergola Abruzzese and the Tendone, supplemented by modern Guyot or Spalliera systems.

The Disciplinare recognises four types: Terre Tollesi Rosso and Rosso Riserva (at least 95 per cent Montepulciano), as well as Terre Tollesi Pecorino and Passerina (each containing at least 90 per cent of the eponymous indigenous white grape variety). The Rosso Riserva is aged for at least two years, including at least six months in wood. The proximity to the sea, with its Adriatic breezes, and the altitudes between the Maiella and the coast characterise the terroir. The reds are characterised by a deep ruby-red colour, a powerful bouquet of ripe red fruit and Mediterranean spices, and a full-bodied, smooth-tannic flavour; the whites display fresh, mineral profiles with floral and fruity aromas characteristic of the respective indigenous grape varieties. Everything you need to know about Abruzzo wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Terroir

Terroir is a key term in the language of wine, describing the totality of all natural and human factors whose interplay gives a wine its distinctive identity. The French word, derived from "terre" (earth, land), is considered untranslatable and was officially defined by the OIV in 2010 as a geographically defined area in which a human community has, over the course of its history, built up production knowledge based on the interplay between the physical and biological environment and human factors. Its components include soil composition, meso- and microclimates, altitude and aspect, grape variety, and the cultural practices applied in the vineyard and cellar.

The system of designations of origin is based on this concept; without the concept of terroir, there would be neither the French AOCs nor the Italian DOCs and DOCGs. Prime examples include the Grand Cru plots of Burgundy, where a difference of just a few metres determines the character of the wine, and, in Italy, the Langhe region for Barolo and Barbaresco, Montalcino for Brunello, and the Contrade of Etna on volcanic soil. Terroir is not a static concept, however: climate change is shifting ripening windows and opening up new altitudes, without the underlying idea losing its significance. – SUPERIORE.DE

Thermovinification

Thermovinification, also known as must heating, refers to the brief heating of red wine must prior to fermentation. Depending on the method used, the must is heated to between approximately 60 and 85 degrees; if the process lasts longer than an hour, it is referred to as hot maceration. The heat breaks down the cellular structure of the grape skins, causing the colour pigments to be released within a short time. The grapes are then pressed and the must fermented in the same way as white wine.

This process extracts mainly anthocyanins and only a small amount of tannins, as the latter are poorly soluble in water and are only extracted in the presence of alcohol – the result is a wine with intense colour but low tannin content. A second reason for using this method is the heat itself: it inactivates enzymes, including laccase from Botrytis infection and oxidases, ensuring that the must retains its colour stability. For this reason, the process is used primarily with damaged grapes, where prolonged contact with the mash is to be avoided. Heating for too long produces jam-like or cooked notes. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Botrytis · Cold Maceration

Tirage

In the traditional bottle-fermentation method, "tirage" refers to bottling the cuvée or base wine for the second fermentation. Tirage liqueur and a yeast culture are added; depending on the method, fining agents may also be used.

The second fermentation produces alcohol and carbon dioxide, which remains dissolved in the sealed bottle and builds pressure. Fermentation is followed by ageing on the lees; the bottles then undergo remuage and are subsequently disgorged. Tirage is therefore the starting point of the actual bottle-fermentation phase of the Metodo Classico. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Metodo Classico · Remuage · Disgorgement

Toasting

Toasting – known in French as "bousinage" or "cuisson œnologique" – refers to the deliberate charring of the inside of the cask to develop aromas. It is distinct from bending: in the cintrage process, fire, water and tension shape the staves; only then does the oenological toasting take place, the duration and intensity of which are controlled by the cooper according to the customer's requirements. It is during this process that the aromatic compounds are first produced – the wood does not simply release them. Lignin initially yields vanillin and syringaldehyde – that is, vanilla and sweet woody notes – whilst at higher temperatures it produces guaiacol and smoky phenols. Hemicellulose breaks down into furfural and maltol, with hints of caramel, roasted almonds and fresh bread. Compounds such as furfural and guaiacol are not present at all in uncharred wood.

Two misconceptions persist. Intense toasting does not produce more vanilla: vanillin reaches its peak at a medium toasting level and decreases with intense toasting, as the lignin breaks down further into smoky phenols. Furthermore, the terms "light", "medium" and "heavy" are not standardised – cooperages work with their own time and temperature profiles. As an alternative to bending the wood over a fire, several cooperages use steam: studies have measured significantly lower ellagitannin levels in the wood following steam treatment, and the expanded pores allow the subsequent toasting to penetrate deeper. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Oak · Barrel

Tonneau

The tonneau is a size halfway between a barrique and a large cask, typically holding 500 litres. Like the barrique, it originates from France; it is also made from split oak and is bent and toasted over a fire.

Its appeal lies in the ratio of surface area to volume: per litre of wine, there is significantly less wood available than in a barrique, yet the oxygen supply remains higher than in a large cask. Producers who wish to achieve structure from oak ageing without masking the fruit with vanilla and toasted notes therefore opt for the tonneau – often alternating between barriques and large casks within the same wine. – SUPERIORE.DE

Topping Up

Topping up, also known as refilling or keeping the cask full, refers to the process of refilling the cask to compensate for losses due to evaporation. Depending on the nature, size and age of the wooden cask, the monthly loss amounts to between 0.5 and 3 per cent of the volume; the barrel is topped up with the same wine.

The reason for this is the air space that would otherwise form. From a wine surface area of one square metre, around 150 cubic centimetres of oxygen are released per hour – a barrel would become oxidised within a few days. The oxygen converts alcohol into acetaldehyde and alters the sulphur balance; furthermore, acetic acid bacteria find the conditions they need to grow in the air pocket. Where it is not possible to keep the barrel topped up, the protective gas takes its place. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Racking · Protective gas

Torgiano Rosso Riserva DOCG

The Torgiano Rosso Riserva DOCG was Umbria's first DOCG in 1990 (with retroactive recognition for the 1983 vintage) and was carved out of the Torgiano DOC of 1968 – the region's very first DOC. The growing area is confined to the municipality of Torgiano in the province of Perugia, a medieval village situated at the confluence of the Tiber and Chiascio rivers at altitudes of between 300 and 400 metres. The soils derive from fluvial-lacustrine deposits of the former "Lago Tiberino" dating from the Pleistocene. The DOCG area is compact and concentrated.

The wine is based on the Sangiovese grape (70–100 per cent), supplemented by other red grape varieties authorised in Umbria (traditionally Canaiolo, Ciliegiolo and Montepulciano; more recently also Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot or Colorino). The Riserva requires at least three years' ageing, including at least six months in the bottle, with a minimum alcohol content of 12.5% vol. The appellation has been significantly shaped by the Lungarotti family, whose Rubesco Riserva "Vigna Monticchio" has been regarded as the benchmark since the 1960s. The Torgiano Rosso Riserva is characterised by a deep ruby-red colour, a complex bouquet of dark ripe fruit, tobacco, leather and spicy notes, as well as a full-bodied, harmonious flavour with structured tannins and good ageing potential. Everything you need to know about Umbrian wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Transfer

"Transfer" refers to any movement of wine from one container to another – for blending, changing vessels, before bottling or for separating it from sediment.

Racking is a specific type of transfer with a defined purpose: the wine is deliberately separated from settled solids. Pumping wine from one tank to another is therefore a transfer, but not necessarily racking. Both operations usually involve some oxygen exposure, which is difficult to avoid completely. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Racking · Topping Up · Protective gas

Trebbiano d'Abruzzo DOC

Trebbiano d'Abruzzo DOC is the main white wine appellation of Abruzzo, recognised since 1972. The growing area covers the entire region (the provinces of Chieti, L'Aquila, Pescara and Teramo) on hilly terrain up to an altitude of 500 metres (600 metres on south-facing slopes). The wine is made primarily from the Trebbiano abruzzese and/or Bombino bianco and/or Trebbiano toscano grape varieties, accounting for at least 85 per cent, supplemented by up to 15 per cent of other white grape varieties authorised in the region. The distinct Trebbiano abruzzese variety was historically often confused with Bombino bianco and has only recently been clearly distinguished ampelographically.

The Disciplinare recognises three quality levels: the standard grade (at least 11.5% vol), the Superiore (at least 12%) and the Riserva (at least 12.5%, aged for at least 12 months). Four sub-zones are permitted for Superiore and Riserva: Colline Pescaresi, Colline Teramane, Terre Aquilane and Terre di Chieti. Trebbiano d'Abruzzo is characterised by an intense straw-yellow colour, a delicate bouquet of white fruit, blossoms and mineral notes, as well as a dry, velvety flavour with a typical almond-like finish – an expressive alternative within the Italian white wine landscape. Everything you need to know about Trebbiano wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Trento DOC

In 1993, Trento DOC became the first Italian DOC designation for Metodo Classico sparkling wines. The wine-growing region encompasses the province of Trento (Trentino) at high altitudes in the Alps. The appellation traces its origins to Giulio Ferrari (1879–1949), the oenologist at the Istituto Agrario San Michele all'Adige, who travelled to France in the early 20th century and recognised the climatic and orographic similarities between Trentino and Champagne.

The Disciplinare permits four grape varieties: Chardonnay (dominant, accounting for well over 50 per cent of the vineyard area), Pinot Bianco, Pinot Nero and Pinot Meunier – either on their own or in a cuvée. Prescribed minimum ageing period on the lees: 15 months for the standard wine, 24 months for Millesimato, 36 months for Riserva. Since 2007, the collective trademark "Trentodoc" has united the producers of the appellation under an even stricter regime. Typical characteristics of Trento DOC include a fine, persistent perlage, a fresh, mineral bouquet with notes of citrus, white fruit, blossoms and sourdough, as well as a creamy, salty-mineral flavour with pronounced freshness – the Alpine Metodo Classico style alongside Franciacorta and Alta Langa. Everything you need to know about sparkling wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Tullum DOCG

→ See Terre Tollesi DOCG

UGA

→ See Unità Geografiche Aggiuntive

Unità Geografiche Aggiuntive

"Unità Geografiche Aggiuntive" (UGA) is the generic term used in Italian wine legislation for official sub-regions within a DOC or DOCG, the names of which may be listed on the label alongside the designation. The term was enshrined in national wine legislation in 2016 as a standardised framework, creating the possibility to formally name and stylistically differentiate sub-zones of a denomination that have developed historically.

Soave in Veneto took the pioneering step in 2019 with 33 UGAs, around 29 of which are in the historic Classico zone. Chianti Classico followed in 2021 with eleven UGAs for the top-tier "Gran Selezione" category: Castellina, Castelnuovo Berardenga, Gaiole, Greve, Lamole, Montefioralle, Panzano, Radda, San Casciano, San Donato in Poggio and Vagliagli. South Tyrol introduced a particularly comprehensive system in 2024 comprising 86 UGAs, subject to strict requirements such as yield reduction and restrictions on grape varieties. In 2025, 12 "Pievi" were introduced in Montepulciano (Vino Nobile). Like MGAs, UGAs are appellation-specific geographical indications; their scope and function are determined by the respective Disciplinare and cannot generally be classified as a fixed hierarchical level in relation to MGAs. Everything you need to know about Chianti Classico Gran Selezione. – SUPERIORE.DE

Val di Cornia Rosso DOCG

The Val di Cornia Rosso DOCG – also known as "Rosso della Val di Cornia" – is a Tuscan wine appellation on the Costa degli Etruschi, which was elevated from Val di Cornia DOC (1989) to DOCG status in 2011. The wine-growing region encompasses the south-western coastal area of Tuscany between the provinces of Livorno (the entire territory of Suvereto and Sassetta; parts of Campiglia Marittima, Piombino and San Vincenzo) and Pisa (Monteverdi Marittimo). The soils originate from cavernous and stratified limestones dating from the Middle Triassic period; the Mediterranean climate is tempered by sea breezes.

The wine is based on the Sangiovese grape (at least 40 per cent), supplemented by Cabernet Sauvignon and/or Merlot (either alone or combined, up to 60 per cent). The Disciplinare recognises two categories: the Val di Cornia Rosso (at least 12.5% vol) and the Riserva (at least 13%). Within the municipal area of Suvereto, there is a separate second designation of origin, the Suvereto DOCG; both were recognised in 2011 and co-exist legally. Characteristic of the Val di Cornia Rosso are a ruby-red colour of good intensity, which turns garnet with age, a delicate, vinous aroma, and a dry, velvety and harmonious flavour with good body and possible notes of wood – a characterful interpretation of the Bordeaux-Sangiovese blend from the Etruscan coast. Everything you need to know about Maremma wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Valtellina Superiore DOCG

Valtellina Superiore is Lombardy's Alpine Nebbiolo DOCG, located in the Adda Valley in the province of Sondrio, north of Lake Como. The vines grow on steep, south-facing terraces on the Rhaetian side of the valley at altitudes between 300 and 700 metres, where the centuries-old dry stone walls are among Italy's most distinctive cultural landscapes. The wine is based on at least 90 per cent Nebbiolo – known locally as Chiavennasca – supplemented by up to 10 per cent of other red grape varieties from Sondrio. Recognised as a DOC in 1968, Valtellina Superiore was elevated to DOCG status in 1998.

Five historic sub-zones structure the DOCG along the valley from west to east: Maroggia, Sassella, Grumello, Inferno and Valgella, each with its own soil profile and stylistic signature. The standard wine is aged for at least 24 months, 12 of which are spent in wood; whilst the Riserva requires a total of three years. Chiavennasca displays an alpine character here: a pale garnet red with orange highlights when mature, a delicate nose of roses, violets and red fruits, crisp acidity and delicate, mineral tannins. Thus, Valtellina Superiore marks the alpine northern flank of the Italian Nebbiolo world, characterised by altitude, steep slopes and traditional terraced cultivation. Everything you need to know about Valtellina wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Varietal typicity

Varietal typicity refers to the degree to which a wine exhibits the characteristics of its grape variety. This can be quantified chemically: key compounds have been identified for individual varieties – monoterpenes in Muscat and Traminer, methoxypyrazines in Sauvignon Blanc and the Cabernet family, and rotundone for the peppery notes in Syrah. Most grapes, however, are naturally low in aroma; a large proportion of the aromatic compounds are present in bound form as precursors and are only released during fermentation and ageing.

Consequently, varietal character is not a fixed profile, but rather a spectrum. Measurements of rotundone have yielded values ranging from around 10 to over 80 nanograms per litre, depending on the vintage and growing region – so even the peppery note, which is considered typical, depends heavily on the location. Origin, vintage, yield and winemaking practices alter the profile considerably, without the variety becoming unrecognisable. – SUPERIORE.DE

Varietal Wine

A varietal wine is a wine named after the main grape variety on the label and containing a legally defined minimum proportion of that variety. Under EU wine legislation, at least 85 per cent of the grapes must come from the specified grape variety; if two or more varieties are listed, the wine must consist of 100 per cent of these varieties, listed in descending order of quantity. The indication of the grape variety is permitted for DOP, IGP and wines without a geographical indication that are explicitly labelled by grape variety.

In Italy, the 2010 wine classification reform introduced the separate category of "Vino varietale": simple wines without DOP or IGP status, which may nevertheless be labelled with the grape variety and vintage. Only selected international varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Merlot, Sauvignon Blanc or Syrah are permitted here; the geographical origin must not be stated. For DOP/IGP wines, the indication of the grape variety is regulated in the Disciplinare, often in combination with the place name, as in the case of Barbera d'Asti DOCG. – SUPERIORE.DE

Vecchio

"Vecchio" is an Italian label designation whose permissibility depends on the relevant appellation or product specification and which, unlike "Riserva", is not subject to a standard statutory time requirement. The legal framework for traditional terms of this kind is set out in EU Regulation 2019/33; its specific use is governed by the individual Disciplinari, which may expressly permit the term, subject it to their own conditions, or prohibit it. Unlike "Riserva" or "Superiore", which must meet precisely defined criteria, "Vecchio" serves, where permitted, as an informative designation without a uniform standard.

In practice, the term is found primarily on liqueur wines and spirits such as Marsala DOC, where the designation "Stravecchio" is reserved for wines aged in casks for at least ten years. The well-known Vecchio Amaro del Capo from Calabria also bears the term in its name, as do many traditional herbal liqueurs. In the case of DOP wines, however, its use is rarely permitted; the Disciplinare for the Piemonte DOC expressly prohibits the use of "Vecchio" to avoid confusion with the regulated "Riserva" category. – SUPERIORE.DE

Velvety

"Velvety" describes a dense, soft mouthfeel with a perceptible yet delicate tannin structure – comparable to the texture of velvet, which offers resistance without being scratchy. This requires mature tannins in significant quantities.

The distinction between a velvety and a rough impression has not been conclusively clarified from an oenological perspective; in addition to the quantity, the source (skin or pépins) and the chemical composition play a role. "Velvety" therefore presupposes substance, not its absence. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Tannin · Silky · Softness · Roundness

Verdicchio dei Castelli di Jesi DOC

Verdicchio dei Castelli di Jesi DOC is the central and, in terms of area, the largest white wine appellation in the Marche region, recognised since 1968. The growing area encompasses the middle Esino Valley across several municipalities in the province of Ancona around Jesi, as well as smaller parts of the province of Macerata. The "Castelli" in the name refer to the region's medieval fortified villages; the vines grow at altitudes of between 80 and 280 metres on clay-limestone soils. The wine is based on the Verdicchio grape, which must account for at least 85 per cent, supplemented by up to 15 per cent of other white grape varieties authorised in the Marche region.

The regulations provide for seven categories: the basic type, the Superiore, the Classico from the historic core area, the Classico Superiore, the Spumante, the Spumante Riserva and the Passito. The Spumante Riserva requires bottle fermentation, a minimum of 36 months' ageing and the indication of the vintage. The highest quality category was spun off in 2010 as a separate Castelli di Jesi Verdicchio Riserva DOCG; it requires a minimum of 18 months' ageing. Everything you need to know about Verdicchio wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Verdicchio di Matelica Riserva DOCG

As the highest quality tier within the Matelica appellation, Verdicchio di Matelica Riserva was elevated from DOC to DOCG status in 2010 (the Riserva category has existed since 1995) and is produced in the inland mountainous region of the Marche. The wine-growing region is significantly smaller than that of the coastal Jesi DOC and comprises eight municipalities along the upper reaches of the Esino: Matelica, Esanatoglia, Gagliole, Castelraimondo, Camerino and Pioraco in the province of Macerata, and Cerreto d'Esi and Fabriano in the province of Ancona. The vines are situated at altitudes of between 400 and 900 metres in a sheltered Apennine valley with a distinctly continental climate. The wine is based on the Verdicchio grape, which must account for at least 85 per cent of the blend.

The Disciplinare stipulates that the Riserva must be aged for at least 18 months and have a minimum alcohol content of 12.5% vol. The continental mountain terroir gives the Matelica Riserva a distinctly tighter structure and a more precisely defined mineral profile, with marked ageing potential. Everything you need to know about Verdicchio wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Vermentino di Gallura DOCG

Vermentino di Gallura DOCG is the protected designation of origin of Gallura in north-eastern Sardinia for wines based on Vermentino. The delimited area covers 23 municipalities from the inland hills to the coast. Many sites are characterised by weathered granite soils, intense sunshine and the influence of wind and sea. The wines must contain at least 95% Vermentino; up to 5% of other permitted non-aromatic white grape varieties grown in Sardinia may be added. The denomination was recognised as a DOCG in 1996.

The wines typically combine expressive Mediterranean aromas with freshness and a note often described as saline or mineral. In addition to the basic type, the production rules include Superiore, Frizzante, Spumante, Passito and Vendemmia tardiva, among others. The range therefore extends from dry, lively white wines to more concentrated and sweet interpretations of the Vermentino grape. Everything you need to know about Vermentino wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Vermouth di Torino (IGP)

Vermouth di Torino IGP is a fortified wine from Piedmont, protected as a geographical indication since the Ministerial Decree of 22 March 2017 and now managed by the Consorzio del Vermouth di Torino (2019). It is based on one or more Italian wines, to which alcohol and an infusion of primarily Artemisia, as well as numerous other herbs and spices, are added; the wormwood plants (Artemisia absinthium and Artemisia pontica) must be grown or harvested in Piedmont. The name derives from the German word "Wermut". Its origins lie in 18th-century Turin, at the court of the House of Savoy; in the 19th century, a veritable Turin vermouth dynasty emerged with houses such as Carpano, Cinzano, Cocchi, Martini and Gancia.

The production regulations distinguish between four colour types (Bianco, Ambrato, Rosato, Rosso) and three sweetness levels (Extra Secco under 30 g/l, Secco under 50 g/l, Dolce from 130 g/l), with alcohol contents between 16 and 22 per cent. Vermouth di Torino Superiore requires a minimum alcohol content of 17 per cent, a wine content of at least 50 per cent from Piedmont, and flavouring with regional herbs such as gentian, lemon balm, camomile or thyme, in addition to Artemisia. Traditionally enjoyed as an aperitif, it forms the essential base for cocktails such as the Martini, Manhattan, Negroni and Americano. Everything you need to know about vermouth. – SUPERIORE.DE

Vernaccia di Oristano DOC

Vernaccia di Oristano DOC was Sardinia's first DOC in 1971 and is one of Italy's most distinctive white wine appellations. The growing area encompasses 17 municipalities around Oristano on the island's west coast, in a gently rolling region along the River Tirso. The wine is made exclusively from the indigenous Vernaccia di Oristano grape (100 per cent), which is ampelographically distinct from Vernaccia di San Gimignano or other "Vernaccia" varieties. The traditional training system is the Alberello Latino.

What makes it special is the oxidative ageing under a natural layer of yeast (flor) in partially filled barrels (caratelli) made of oak or chestnut – a process reminiscent of Andalusian flor ageing, though not identical to it; some producers supplement this with a solera-like system that blends wines from several vintages. The Disciplinare recognises four categories with varying ageing periods: the basic type (at least 2 years in wood, at least 15% vol), Superiore (at least 3 years, 15.5 per cent), Riserva (at least 4 years) and Liquoroso (fortified, at least 16.5 per cent). Vernaccia di Oristano is characterised by a golden-yellow to amber colour, a complex bouquet of walnut, toasted almond, dried citrus and sea-salt notes, as well as a dry, full-bodied and salty-mineral flavour with a long finish – stylistically a distant relative of the Andalusian Fino and Amontillado. Everything you need to know about Sardinian wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Vernaccia di San Gimignano DOCG

Vernaccia di San Gimignano is Tuscany's historic white wine and was Italy's very first DOC in 1966; the DOCG designation followed in 1993. The production area is confined to the municipality of San Gimignano in the province of Siena, where the indigenous Vernaccia di San Gimignano grape has been cultivated since the 13th century and was counted amongst Italy's most prized wines during the Renaissance. Although the grape variety shares the name, it is not botanically related to other Italian Vernaccias such as Vernaccia di Oristano. The DOCG recognises two types: the standard wine with a minimum alcohol content of 11.5 per cent, and the Riserva with a minimum of 12.5 per cent, aged for eleven months and a further three months in the bottle.

The Pliocene marine sediments beneath the towers of San Gimignano – yellow sand with layers of clay and tuff – form the mineral foundation of Vernaccia. Dry, with pronounced acidity and rich in structure, the wine develops a flinty minerality and an almond note on the finish as it matures in the bottle – a hallmark of the appellation. Vernaccia di San Gimignano is thus one of the most distinctive Italian white wines, with a proven ageing potential of over a decade and more. Everything you need to know about Tuscan wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Vernaccia di Serrapetrona DOCG

Vernaccia di Serrapetrona DOCG is a niche appellation in the inner Marche region, reserved exclusively for red sparkling wine. It was spun off from the Serrapetrona DOC in 2003 and was also the first sparkling wine DOCG in the Marche. The growing area stretches some 60 kilometres from the Adriatic Sea, covering the entire municipality of Serrapetrona as well as parts of Belforte del Chienti and San Severino Marche in the province of Macerata, at altitudes of up to 700 metres. The wine is based on the indigenous Vernaccia Nera grape, accounting for at least 85 per cent, supplemented by up to 15 per cent of other red grape varieties authorised in the province.

What sets it apart is the vinification process involving three fermentations: the first fermentation of the fresh base wine at harvest time, followed by the addition of a must comprising at least 40 per cent of dried Vernaccia Nera grapes (appassimento until January) for the second fermentation, and finally the development of bubbles in the bottle or in an autoclave. The Disciplinare recognises two styles: the dry (secco) and the sweet (dolce) versions. Characteristic of Vernaccia di Serrapetrona are a ruby-red colour with garnet-red highlights, a red, fine and persistent perlage, and an aromatic bouquet of red fruit with vinous notes and a characteristic tingling freshness – one of Italy's most unusual sparkling wines. Everything you need to know about sparkling wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Vigna (on the label)

In Italian wine law, "vigna" (Italian for "vineyard") is the term used to describe an officially registered single vineyard, the name of which may appear on a wine label. Unlike MGA or UGA, which are collective classifications of entire zones, a "Vigna" refers to a specific, precisely demarcated plot of land, often within a larger denomination or MGA. The vineyard name must be entered in an official register for the relevant wine-growing region.

Its use is subject to strict conditions: the grapes must come exclusively from the registered vigna, be vinified and bottled separately, and, depending on the disciplinary regulations, may also be subject to a reduced maximum yield compared with the base denomination. Well-known "Vigna" wines can be found throughout Italy in Barolo, Brunello, Franciacorta, Chianti Classico and Amarone; in South Tyrol, Hofstätter was among the first to systematically establish the term. The term has a long tradition: many vineyards have borne their names since the Middle Ages, though legal codification only took place with the modern Italian wine law. "Vigna" denotes a geographical classification within the Italian system of origin. – SUPERIORE.DE

Vin Santo

Vin Santo is a traditional Tuscan and Umbrian passito made from grapes that are dried on mats or hung up over the winter after the harvest. After pressing, from December onwards, the must matures for years in small wooden barrels, known as caratelli, usually in the villa's attic, where temperature fluctuations aid the ageing process. Traditionally, the lees from the previous batch, the madre del vinsanto, are added to the new barrel. The name dates back to an anecdote from the Council of Florence in 1439: Cardinal Bessarion is said to have exclaimed "Questo è vin santo" whilst tasting it, in reference to the Greek sweet wine Xantos.

The classic appellations are found in Tuscany: Vin Santo del Chianti, Chianti Classico, Montepulciano and Carmignano. The white versions are based on Trebbiano Toscano and Malvasia; the special variant Occhio di Pernice is made predominantly from Sangiovese and produces a wine ranging in colour from pink to light red. The ageing period varies between three and five to six years depending on the appellation, and in some cases may be considerably longer (Occhio di Pernice). Sensory characteristics range from straw-yellow to dark amber, with aromas of figs, dates, honey, cedarwood and bitter almonds. Traditionally served with cantucci in Tuscany. Everything you need to know about dessert wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Vineyard Register

A vineyard register is the official inventory of all vineyards in Italy, containing up-to-date information on the country's productive viticultural potential. The legal basis for the Schedario viticolo is Article 145 of EU Regulation 1308/2013 and Article 8 of the Testo Unico Vino (Law 238/2016). The register is established by the Italian Ministry of Agriculture and administered by the individual regions; every area of land suitable for wine production must be recorded in it.

The register records the location and size of all vineyard plots, the grape varieties planted, the year of planting, the technical characteristics of the vineyard, and suitability for the respective DOP and IGP categories. The register forms an integral part of the SIAN agricultural information system and is linked to a GIS system. The data in the register provide an important basis for production declarations, claims of origin and procedures relating to planting authorisations. The EU authorisation system for vine plantings has been in force since 1 January 2016 and is managed as a separate procedure within the SIAN. – SUPERIORE.DE

Vino (da Tavola)

Until 2009, Vino da Tavola was the lowest category of Italian wine without a geographical indication of origin, with the lowest quality requirements and the greatest freedom in terms of grape varieties and winemaking. It was defined by the Italian Wine Law of 1963 and abolished with the EU wine market reform (OCM) of 2009; since then, the corresponding category has simply been known as "Vino", with or without optional indications of grape variety and vintage.

The category owes its paradoxical fame to the Super Tuscans of the 1970s and 1980s: because they used international grape varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon or Merlot, wines such as Sassicaia (first commercial vintage 1968), Tignanello (1971) or Ornellaia (1985) could not be classified as Chianti or other DOC wines and had to be marketed as Vino da Tavola. Despite this legal downgrading, they achieved world fame and commanded prices on a par with Bordeaux. The legislative response came in 1992 with the new IGT category; the Bolgheri DOC had already been in existence since 1983 and was significantly expanded in 1994 to include red wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Vino cotto

Vino cotto is a traditional drink from the Italian regions of Marche and Abruzzo, made by reducing grape must over an open fire. The fresh must, made from local varieties such as Montepulciano or Trebbiano d'Abruzzo, is heated in large copper cauldrons until it is reduced to between a third and half of its original volume; it is then fermented and matured in small chestnut or oak barrels, often in contact with older batches. The finished Vino cotto has an alcohol content of between 12 and 14 per cent by volume and retains its characteristic sweetness due to the concentrated residual sugar.

Legally, Vino cotto does not fall under any of the EU wine categories, as the reduction of the must is not one of the authorised oenological practices; it is listed as a Prodotto Agroalimentare Tradizionale (PAT) by the Italian Ministry of Agriculture, and in the Marche region it is also governed by its own set of regulations set out in the Bollettino Ufficiale Regione Marche 63/2002. The roots of the process date back to Roman antiquity, when defrutum and sapa were produced in a similar way. Since the 1990s, Vino cotto has been experiencing a renaissance; the centre of this revival is Loro Piceno with its annual Sagra del Vino Cotto. – SUPERIORE.DE

Vino da meditazione

"Meditation wine" refers to a cultural category of wine that is not drunk with a meal, but is enjoyed on its own and in a spirit of contemplative tranquillity. The term was coined by the Italian wine journalist and oenologist Luigi Veronelli (1926–2004) and was originally defined in broad terms: any wine, whether red or white, still or sparkling, dry or sweet, that possesses the necessary aromatic complexity and persistence to stand on its own. In practice, the term has now largely narrowed to refer to sweet passito wines and long-aged, structured wines.

Italian classics include sweet "passiti" such as Vin Santo del Chianti DOC, Passito di Pantelleria DOC, Recioto della Valpolicella DOCG and Picolit dei Colli Orientali del Friuli DOCG. These are complemented by full-bodied red wines with long ageing, such as Barolo Riserva, Brunello di Montalcino, Amarone della Valpolicella DOCG and Sagrantino di Montefalco DOCG, as well as Marsala Superiore Riserva and the fortified Barolo Chinato. – SUPERIORE.DE

Vino Nobile di Montepulciano DOCG

Vino Nobile di Montepulciano DOCG was the first Italian wine to bear the DOCG label in 1980 and is also one of the most prestigious Sangiovese appellations in Tuscany. The growing area is confined to the municipality of Montepulciano in the province of Siena, at altitudes of between 250 and 600 metres between the rivers Orcia and Chiana. The wine is based on the Sangiovese grape, comprising at least 70 per cent (locally known as "Prugnolo Gentile"), supplemented by up to 30 per cent of other red grape varieties authorised in Siena and a maximum of 5 per cent white grape varieties – traditionally Canaiolo Nero, Mammolo, Colorino and Malvasia Bianca Lunga.

The regulations provide for two categories: the Vino Nobile di Montepulciano (aged for at least 2 years, with the Disciplinare permitting three ageing profiles involving 24, 18 or 12 months in wood, minimum alcohol content 12.5% vol) and the Vino Nobile di Montepulciano Riserva (minimum ageing of 3 years, of which 1 year in wood and 6 months in the bottle, minimum alcohol content 13% vol). In addition, producers offer the Rosso di Montepulciano DOC as a more youthful variant, as well as the white Vin Santo di Montepulciano DOC. The 2025 reform defined twelve Unità Geografiche Aggiuntive; the new "Pieve" designation combines stricter production rules with the specification of one of these units. Everything you need to know about Vino Nobile wines. – SUPERIORE.DE

Vintage

"Vintage" refers to the year in which the grapes were harvested and thus to the complete growing cycle of a particular wine. It is optional as a label designation; however, under EU wine legislation, it is only permitted if at least 85 per cent of the grapes come from the specified year; the remaining 15 per cent may be supplemented with grapes from other vintages. For Italian DOP and IGP wines, this designation is common and may also be used, under certain conditions, for wines without DOP or IGP status.

The vintage is one of the key factors determining wine quality, as weather and climate during the growing season directly influence the degree of ripeness, acidity, alcohol content and aromatic profile. However, not every wine is a vintage wine: sherry from Andalusia is traditionally aged using the solera system, which combines several vintages, and many champagnes are deliberately designed as multi-vintage cuvées to maintain a consistent house style. Italian sparkling wines with strict vintage designation are referred to as "Millesimato". – SUPERIORE.DE

Volcanic Soil

Volcanic soils are formed from the emissions of active or extinct volcanoes and consist of basalt, tuff, pumice, lava, lapilli and volcanic ash. They account for only around one per cent of the world's land surface, but in Italy the figure is four to five per cent, making the country one of the most important volcanic wine-growing regions of all. These soils are characterised by porosity with good drainage and a high content of minerals such as potassium, phosphorus, magnesium and iron. In some volcanic wine regions, soils with a high sand content have helped to hinder the spread of phylloxera; as a result, some of Europe's oldest ungrafted vines can still be found today on Mount Etna and on Pantelleria, amongst other places.

The most important Italian volcanic wine regions are spread from north to south: Soave and Gambellara in Veneto, Frascati and the Colli Albani in Lazio, Vulture in Basilicata, Vesuvius and Campi Flegrei in Campania, and Mount Etna in Sicily, along with Pantelleria and Ischia. Varieties such as Carricante and Nerello Mascalese thrive on Mount Etna, Aglianico on Mount Vulture, Falanghina and Fiano on Mount Vesuvius, and Garganega in Soave. On the palate, many of these wines share a so-called "minerality", sometimes with smoky, iodine-like or salty notes and a lively acidity that can make them more age-worthy and distinctive. Under the umbrella brand Volcanic Wines, these regions have been networking internationally for several years. – SUPERIORE.DE

VQPRD

VQPRD is the abbreviation for Vino di Qualità Prodotto in Regione Determinata, an EU category which, until 2009, was the overarching classification for all quality wines produced in a geographically defined area. In Italy, it encompassed the two "Menzioni Tradizionali" – DOC and DOCG – whilst in France it included AOC and VDQS. With the 2009 EU wine market reform (OCM) and its implementation in Italy via Legislative Decree 61/2010–later superseded by the Testo Unico Vino (Law 238/2016)–the category was abolished and replaced by the designation DOP (Denominazione di Origine Protetta).

Within the VQPRD system, there were specific sub-categories: VLQPRD for liqueur wines, VSQPRD for quality sparkling wines and VFQPRD for semi-sparkling wines. These designations were also abolished as part of the reform. Current EU wine legislation separates product categories from protection of origin: the product categories are regulated in Annex VII, Part II of EU Regulation 1308/2013, whilst protection of origin is administered separately via DOP/IGP; there is therefore no direct 1:1 successor to the old QPRD designations. The term VQPRD is now found primarily in older wine law documents and specialist texts. – SUPERIORE.DE

VSQ

→ See Quality Sparkling Wine

Wild Yeasts

Wild yeasts are those that find their way into the must without any intervention from the winemaker – from the grape skins, from the vineyard and from the cellar itself, where they have become established over the years in the equipment and on the walls.

They are not a single species, but a community. Non-Saccharomyces yeasts such as Kloeckera and Candida tolerate low levels of alcohol and are active at the outset; as the alcohol content rises, Saccharomyces cerevisiae takes over. The cellar's yeast population is considered characteristic of the winery and changes over the years. – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Spontaneous Fermentation · Cultured Yeasts · Fermentation

Wine Ageing

Ageing refers to the changes a wine undergoes over time during maturation and bottle ageing, right through to its deterioration. The term is broader in scope than "bottle ageing", which describes only the changes that occur after bottling.

This dual nature explains the varying usage of the terms. "Age-worthy" is a compliment and refers to the ability to improve over the years; "aged" is a description and usually implies that the wine has passed its peak. Both terms refer to the same process, but at different stages. The chemical process is described under the glossary term "development", whilst the role of the closure is covered under "bottle ageing". – SUPERIORE.DE

→ See also Evolution · Bottle Ageing · Drinking window

Youthful

"Youthful" describes a wine in which the primary aromas of the grape dominate: fresh fruit, a clear colour with a violet rim in red wines, often still quite sharp tannins and noticeable acidity.

The term refers to the state of the wine, not its age – a tannin-rich red wine can still seem youthful even after ten years, whilst a light white wine moves beyond this phase within a few months. – SUPERIORE.DE